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ORIENTAL  RUGS 

ANTIQUE  AND  MODERN 

WALTER  A.  HAWLEY 

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COLOUR  PLATE  I 


Section  of  the  Holy  Carjpet  of  the  Mosque  of  Ardebil,  in  the  Royal 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum , South  Kensington , London.  Described 
on  Pages  83  and  8k. 


SECTION  OF  THE  HOLY  CARPET  OF  THE  MOSQUE  AT  ARDEBIL, 

Size:  34ft.  6in.  by  17ft.  6in. 

Translation  of  Inscription. 

I have  no  refuge  in  the  world  other  than  thy  threshold, 

My  head  has  no  protection  other  than  this  porchway; 

The  work  of  the  Slave  of  this  Holy  Place. 

Maksotid  of  Kashan. 

946  A. H.  =1540  A.D. 

FORMERLY  IN  THE  POSSESSION  OF  VINCENT  ROBINSON  & CO.,  Ltd., 

34  Wigmorf.  Street,  London,  W., 

And  Sold  by  them  In  1892  to 

THE  ROYAL  VICTORIA  AND  ALBERT  MUSEUM,  SOUTH  KENSINGTON,  LONDON. 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


ANTIQUE  AND  MODERN 


WALTER  A.  HAWLEY 


WITH  ELEVEN  FULL-PAGE  PLATES  IN  COLOUR 
EIGHTY  HALF-TONE  ENGRAVINGS 
AND  FOUR  MAPS 


NEW  YORK:  JOHN  LANE  COMPANY 
LONDON:  JOHN  LANE,  THE  BODLEY  HEAD 
TORONTO:  BELL  & COCKBURN 
MCMXIII 


BY 


i 


Copyright,  1913 
By  John  Lane  Company 


THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS., 


U.  S.  A. 


THE  GETTY  CENTER 
LIBRARY 


PREFACE 


jINCE  the  appearance,  in  1900,  of  the  excel- 
lent work  of  Mr.  John  Kimberly  Mumford 
on  Oriental  Rugs,  the  public  interest  in  these 
fabrics  has  so  largely  increased  that  the  au- 
thor feels  warranted  in  offering  this  mono- 
graph, which  aims  to  treat  the  subject  in  a 
way  that  will  not  only  appeal  to  the  general 
reader  but  be  of  value  to  the  student. 

In  the  chapter  entitled  “ Rug  Weaving  Before  the  XVIII  Cen- 
tury ” is  a brief  review  of  some  of  the  notable  achievements  in  this 
branch  of  art;  and  in  order  that  the  public  may  as  far  as  possible 
have  access  to  the  masterpieces  described,  the  carpets  on  exhibition 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  in  New  York  have  been  given 
unusual  prominence.  The  chapters  on  “How  to  Distinguish  Rugs” 
and  on  “Purchasing  Rugs”  should  prove  serviceable  to  those  who  are 
collecting  or  are  buying  for  use;  and  the  chapter  on  “Weaving”  con- 
tains many  details  which  have  not  previously  received  from  con- 
noisseurs the  consideration  they  deserve. 

The  descriptions  of  all  but  the  least  important  classes  of  rugs 
in  the  Persian,  Asia  Minor,  Caucasian,  and  Central  Asiatic  groups 
include  not  only  a general  statement  of  their  most  striking  fea- 
tures, but  also  a technical  analysis  that  is  termed  “Type  Character- 
istics.” It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  these  characteristics 
are  not  invariable,  but  are  remarkably  constant.  They  may  interest 
chiefly  those  who  aim  to  acquire  expert  information,  yet  they  will 
doubtlessly  prove  valuable  to  every  owner  of  a rug  as  a means 
for  its  identification. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  acknowledge  all  the  assistance  received 
by  the  author  since  he  began  the  study  of  rugs;  for  sometimes  a 
mere  suggestion  has  started  a line  of  investigation  resulting  in 
interesting  discoveries.  He  has  freely  consulted  well-known  author- 
ities, who  are  quoted  in  the  body  of  the  work;  and  has  received 
valuable  suggestions  and  assistance  from  Messrs.  T.  S.  Hawley, 
of  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  George  Harootunian  and  Frank  Loftus,  of 


VI 


PREFACE 


Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  George  Stevenson,  of  New  York;  G.  Graf,  of 
the  Persiche  Teppiche  Gesellschaft,  of  Tabriz;  and  P.  de  Andrea 
& Co.,  of  Constantinople.  He  gratefully  acknowledges  the  per- 
mission of  Messrs.  C.  F.  Williams,  of  Norristown,  Penn.,  and  James 
F.  Ballard,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to  study  their  valuable  collections; 
and  the  permission  of  Dr.  Wilhelm  R.  Valentiner,  Curator  of  Deco- 
rative Arts  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York,  to  examine 
the  carpets  of  the  museum  and  to  take  photographs  of  them.  He 
also  wishes  particularly  to  mention  the  kindness  of  the  following 
collectors  and  firms  who  have  allowed  their  rugs  to  be  used  for 
illustrations : Miss  Emily  Davis,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ; the  Misses 
Palache,  and  Messrs.  Nathan  Bentz  and  T.  S.  Hawley,  of  Santa 
Barbara,  Cal.;  Mr.  R.  Y.  Sfruble,  of  Fredericktown,  Ohio;  Mr.  E.  L. 
Pierce,  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.;  Mr.  II.  C.  Merritt,  of  Pasadena,  Cal.; 
Mr.  J.  F.  Ballard,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Mr.  C.  F.  Williams,  of  Norris- 
town, Penn.;  Major  L.  B.  Lawton,  U.S.A.,  of  Seneca  Falls,  N.Y.; 
Messrs.  Mihran  & Co.,  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  Messrs.  B.  Altman  & 
Co.,  Benguiat  & Keresey,  Wm.  Baumgarten  & Co.,  Jones  & Brindisi, 
Jos.  Wild  & Co.,  W.  & J.  Sloane,  and  the  Tiffany  Studios,  of  New 
York  City.  He  is  also  indebted  to  Vincent  Robinson  & Co.,  Ltd., 
of  London,  for  the  use  of  the  colour  plate  of  the  Royal  Garden 
Carpet,  now  owned  by  them,  and  to  the  Royal  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  South  Kensington,  London,  for  permission  to  obtain  a 
colour  plate  of  the  Holy  Carpet  of  the  Mosque  of  Ardebil. 

Walter  A.  Hawley. 

New  York,  June,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  Introduction 15 

II  Physical  Features  and  History  of  Rug-Producing 

Lands 20 

III  Materials  ...............  30 

IV  Dyeing  .................  37 

V  Weaving  ................  44 

VI  Designs  and  Symbols 58 

VII  Rug  Weaving  before  the  Eighteenth  Century  . 74 

VIII  Classification  of  Modern  Rugs 97 

IX  Persian  Rugs 102 

X Asia  Minor  Rugs  163 

XI  Caucasian  Rugs  197 

XII  Central  Asiatic  Rugs 233 

XIII  Indian  Rugs 253 

XIV  Chinese  Rugs 263 

XV  Kilims 276 

XVI  How  to  Distinguish  Rugs 282 

XVII  Purchasing  Rugs 295 


Index 


. 309 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Coloured  Plates 

Plate 

I  The  Holy  Carpet  of  the  Mosque  of  Ardebil  ....  Frontispiece 

Opposite  Page 

II  Oushak  Carpet 40 

III  Mosul  Rug 66 

IV  Bergamo  Rug 102 

V Ghiordes  Prayer  Rug 130 

VI  Royal  Persian  Garden  Carpet  . . . . Betiveen  pages  160  and  161 

VII  Ladik  Prayer  Rug 190 

VIII  Soumak  Rug 210 

IX  Samarkand  Rug 240 

X Kang-hi  Rug 270 

XI  Keen-lung  Rug 300 

Halftone  Engravings 

Plate  1 Khorassan  Rug 22 

„ 2 Meshed  Rug  26 

„ 3 Kirm an  Rug  30 

„ 4 Shiraz  Rug 34 

,,  5 Niris  Rug 36 

,,  6 Feraghan  Rug 42 

„ 7 Feraghan  Rug 46 

„ 8 Hamadan  Rug 52 

„ 9 Sarouk  Rug 56 

„ 10  Sarabend  Rug 58 

„ 11  Carpet  from  Northwestern  Persia 64 

„ 12  Carpet  from  Northwestern  Persia 68 

„ 13  Compartment  Carpet 70 

„ 14  Persian  Animal  Carpet 72 

„ 15  Persian  Animal  Carpet 76 

„ 16  Persian  Animal  Carpet 78 

„ 17  So-called  Polish  or  Polonaise  Carpet 80 

„ 18  So-called  Ispahan 84 

,,  19  Armenian  Carpet  86 

,,  20  Asia  Minor  Dragon  and  Phoenix  Carpet 88 

„ 21  Portrait  of  Georg  Gyze  by  Ilans  Holbein 92 


22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

E 

F 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

G 

H 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

I 

J 

K 

53 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Opposite  Page 


Oushak  Carpet  94 

Sehna  Rug 98 

Map  of  Persia 104 

Bijar  Rug 106 

Kermanshah  Rug 110 

Kurdistan  Rug  with  Mina  Khani  Pattern 114 

Gore  van  Rug 118 

Bergamo  Prayer  Rug 122 

Ghiordes  Prayer  Rug 126 

Ghiordes  Rug 132 

Kulah  Prayer  Rug 136 

Melez  Prayer  Rug 140 

Melez  Rug 144 

Rhodian  Rug 148 

Konieh  Prayer  Rug 152 

Kir-Shehr  Prayer  Rug 154 

Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Persian  Rugs 156 

Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Persian  Rugs 158 

Map  of  Asia  Minor 164 

Anatolian  Prayer  Rug 166 

Mud  jar  Prayer  Rug 168 

Daghestan  Prayer  Rug 172 

Kabistan  Rug 176 

Kuba  Rug  180 

Chichi  Rug 184 

Tcherkess  Rug 188 

Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Asia  Minor  Rugs 192 

Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Asia  Minor  Rugs  ....  194 

Map  of  Caucasia  198 

Baku  Rug 200 

Shirvan  Rug  202 

Soumak  Rug  204 

Kazak  Prayer  Rug 208 

Kazak  Rug 212 

Karabagh  Prayer  Rug 214 

Gengha  Prayer  Rug 218 

Royal  Bokhara  Rug 222 

Princess  Bokhara  Rug 224 

Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Caucasian  Rugs 226 

Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Caucasian  Rugs 228 

Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Caucasian  Rugs 230 

Map  of  Turkestan 234 

Turkoman  Rug  with  Katchli  Pattern 236 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


xi 

Opposite  Page 

Plate  54  Turkoman  Rug  with  Pintle  Pattern 238 

„ 55  Turkoman  Rug  of  the  Salor  Tribes 244 

„ 56  Yomud  Rug 248 

„ L Primary  and  Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Central  Asiatic 

Rugs 250 

„ 57  Beshire  Prayer  Rug 254 

„ 58  Beshire  Rug 258 

„ 59  Afghan  Rug 260 

„ 60  Beluchistan  Prayer  Rug 264 

„ 61  Turkoman  Saddle-bags 268 

„ M Medallions  in  Chinese  Rugs  272 

,,  N Primary  and  Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Chinese  Rugs  . 274 

„ 62  Srinagar  Rug 278 

,,  63  XVIII  Century  Chinese  Rug 282 

„ 64  Keen-lung  Rug 286 

,,  65  Keen-lung  Rug 292 

„ 66  Kurdish  Prayer  Kilim 296 

Black  and  White  Engravings 

Page 

Plate  A An  Upright  Loom 45 

„ B Technicalities  of  Weaving 49 

„ C Prayer  Arches  of  Persian,  Caucasian,  and  Central  Asiatic 

Rugs 61 

„ D Prayer  Arches  of  Asia  Minor  Rugs 63 

„ O General  Designs 291 

Charts 

Periods  when  Antique  Carpets  were  made 96 

Technicalities  in  the  weave  of  Persian  Rugs 161 

Technicalities  in  the  weave  of  Persian  Rugs 162 

Technicalities  in  the  weave  of  Asia  Minor  Rugs 196 

Technicalities  in  the  weave  of  Caucasian  Rugs 232 

Technicalities  in  the  weave  of  Central  Asiatic  Rugs 252 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 

ANTIQUE  AND  MODERN 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

T is  not  altogether  surprising  that  in  a most 
materialistic  age  many  of  a race  distinguished 
more  for  its  utilitarian  than  artistic  accom- 
plishments should  fail  to  see  in  Oriental  carpets 
high  artistic  expression;  yet  during  the  last 
twenty  years  choice  specimens  have  been  sold 
for  sums  which  not  only  are  very  large,  but 
show  a tendency  to  increase  with  each  suc- 
ceeding year.  In  1893  a woollen  rug,  known  as  the  Ardebil  carpet 
and  regarded,  on  account  of  its  beautiful  designs  and  exquisite 
colours,  as  one  of  the  finest  products  of  Oriental  art,  was  purchased 
for  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Since  it  had  a length  of  thirty- 
four  and  a half  feet  with  a breadth  of  seventeen  and  a half,  the 
price  of  £2500,  which  was  the  sum  paid,  was  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
dollars  per  square  foot.  At  an  auction  sale  in  New  York  in  1910,* 
a woollen  rug  five  and  a half  feet  long  by  three  and  three  quarters 
wide  was  sold  for  the  sum  of  $10,200,  or  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred 
and  ninety-one  dollars  per  square  foot;  and  a silk  rug  seven  feet 
and  two  inches  long  by  six  feet  and  four  inches  wide  was  sold  for 
the  sum  of  $35,500,  or  at  the  rate  of  nine  hundred  and  thirty  dollars 
per  square  foot.  As  it  was  the  general  opinion  of  connoisseurs  that 
the  prices  paid  for  these  two  rugs  were  low,  and  as  it  is  well  known 
that  these  rugs  are  not  more  valuable  than  some  others  of  equal  size, 
it  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  that  many  of  the  best  judges  of 
Oriental  rugs  would  declare  that  at  the  present  time  the  sum  of  five 
hundred  dollars  per  square  foot  is  a fair  price  for  some  antique 
woollen  rugs,  and  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  per  square  foot 
a fair  price  for  some  antique  silk  rugs. 


* The  Yerkes  sale. 


16 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


If  these  judges  were  asked  on  what  they  based  their  opinion  of  the 
value  of  these  old  pieces,  which  are  less  serviceable  for  wear  than  new 
rugs  that  can  be  bought  of  an  American  factory  at  twenty  cents 
per  square  foot,  they  might  with  reason  reply  that  they  are  works 
of  art,  woven  in  those  days  when  Michelangelo,  Titian,  Rubens, 
and  Rembrandt  were  busy  in  their  studios;  that  they  are  as  scarce 
as  the  paintings  of  these  masters;  and  that  they  might  justly  be 
compared  with  them  in  beauty  and  artistic  execution.  Though 
granting  that  the  technique  of  weaving  makes  it  impossible  to  repre- 
sent a design  as  perfectly  as  can  be  done  with  a brush,  they  would 
claim  that  the  drawing  of  dainty  vines,  scrolls,  and  arabesques 
was  often  represented  by  lines  that  in  abstract  beauty  of  form 
are  unsurpassed,  and  that  no  artist  had  ever  produced  from  his 
palette  colours  which  equalled  in  brilliant  sheen  and  marvellously 
changing  hue  those  of  the  woven  masterpieces. 

Whoever  is  inclined  to  disagree  with  these  judges  and  with  those 
art  critics  of  Europe  and  America  who  assert  that  in  an  aesthetic 
sense  the  people  of  the  Orient  are  cultured  to  a standard  beyond 
the  comprehension  of  the  Western  world,  should  remember  that  the 
taste  for  any  kind  of  art  is  based  on  convention  and  is  largely  a 
matter  of  cultivation.  The  Occidental,  who  for  generations  has 
cultivated  the  taste  for  paintings  and  statuary,  looks  to  the  painter 
and  sculptor  for  the  highest  expression  of  artistic  genius;  but  the 
Oriental  takes  greater  delight  in  his  marvellous  creations  of  porce- 
lain or  woven  fabrics.  There  is,  too,  a marked  difference  in  treat- 
ment. The  Occidental  demands  that  in  art  “everything  should  be 
stated  with  the  utmost  fullness  of  a tedious  realism  before  he  can 
grasp  its  meaning”  * and  fails  to  recognise  the  more  subtle  beauty 
of  various  forms  of  Oriental  art.  The  Oriental,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  far  less  realistic  and  is  better  satisfied  if  his  subject  suggests 
abstract  qualities  that  depend  for  their  fullest  appreciation  on  those 
quickening  experiences  that  at  different  times  have  touched  the  soul 
of  the  observer.  Moreover,  as  Buddhism,  which  prevails  in  many  of 
the  countries  of  Asia,  teaches  that  a universal  spirit  is  manifested 
in  each  form  of  nature,  determining  its  character,  and  a similar 
idea  pervades  other  religions  of  the  East,  the  highest  aim  of  Asiatic 
art  is  to  express  that  inner  spirit.  It  is  largely  this  difference 
in  artistic  cultivation  that  accounts  for  the  difference  in  taste. 
Whoever  then  would  fully  appreciate  these  rugs  must  view 
* Stewart  Dix,  in  “Arts  of  Old  Japan.” 


INTRODUCTION 


17 


them  not  only  with  an  eye  trained  to  see  the  beautiful  harmonies 
of  colour  and  design,  but  with  the  artistic  temperament  of  the 
Oriental. 

By  study  and  cultivation  the  European  as  well  as  the  American 
is  growing  to  value  more  highly  the  products  of  Oriental  art.  When 
the  old  sea  captains  carried  on  trade  with  Japan,  they  imported  into 
Europe  large  quantities  of  Imari  ware,  which  the  Japanese  purposely 
decorated  with  crude  and  vulgar  colours  to  meet  the  less  refined 
taste  of  the  Europeans,  who  regarded  many  of  them  as  fine  speci- 
mens of  ceramic  art  and  studiously  copied  them  in  their  factories. 
But  so  great  has  been  the  change  in  artistic  taste  since  then  that 
now  they  are  valued  principally  as  objects  of  curiosity.  Likewise, 
many  beautiful  Japanese  Makimonos,  in  which  a few  strong  lines 
gave  but  a hint  of  the  essential  thought,  formerly  passed  before 
the  eyes  of  Europeans  as  the  paintings  of  semi-barbarians.  But 
now  we  begin  to  see,  as  did  Whistler,  that  they  are  often  the  prod- 
ucts of  great  genius  and  that  they  express  thought  and  feeling 
with  marvellous  power.  There  has  been  a similar  growth  in  the 
appreciation  of  Oriental  rugs.  Even  within  the  last  generation  this 
growth  has  been  apparent,  so  that  the  few  who  wisely  bought  those 
old  worn  pieces  which  thirty  years  ago  hung  at  doors  of  little  shops 
where  dark-faced  foreigners  invited  acquaintance,  are  now  the 
envy  of  the  many  who,  too  late,  have  learned  that  to-day  they  can 
scarcely  be  bought  at  any  price. 

The  more  we  study  the  several  fields  of  art  in  the  Orient,  the 
better  we  realise  the  wonderful  creative  genius  of  its  people  and  learn 
to  value  the  products  of  any  one  field.  Japan  lias  awakened  the 
admiration  of  the  highest  art  critics  for  its  bronzes,  some  of  which 
exceed  in  size  any  other  castings  in  the  world,  and  for  its  netsukes, 
which  are  the  smallest  of  carvings.  Its  blades  of  steel  are  superior 
to  those  of  Damascus  and  Toledo;  and  its  lacquer,  which  is  the  most 
wonderful  of  its  artistic  products,  displays  genius  of  a very  high 
order.  To  China,  a country  that  we  often  regard  as  barbarous,  we 
owe  the  invention  of  silks,  the  printing  press,  and  gunpowder; 
yet  it  is  in  porcelain,  that  was  manufactured  even  in  those  days 
when  Caesar  was  marching  with  his  legions  against  the  barbarous 
races  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe,  that  China  has  surpassed 
the  world  and  set  a standard  that  probably  will  never  again  be 
reached.  In  the  land  where  glide  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  stand 
temples,  erected  by  the  descendants  of  the  house  of  Tamerlane,  be- 


18 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


fore  which  the  beholder,  even  if  familiar  with  the  wonders  of  St. 
Peter’s,  is  lost  in  admiration  of  the  intricate  delicacy  of  detail,  the 
majesty  of  proportions,  and  the  gorgeous  splendour  of  colour  with 
which  some  of  the  spirit  of  the  East  is  expressed  in  material  form. 
When  we  realise  that  in  these  different  lines  of  artistic  effort  the 
genius  of  Asia  has  rivalled  and  surpassed  that  of  Europe  and 
America,  we  become  the  better  prepared  to  believe  that  choice 
specimens  of  woven  fabrics,  in  weaving  which  every  class  of  every 
country  of  Asia  has  been  engaged  from  time  immemorial,  are  to  be 
regarded  as  works  of  the  highest  art. 

However  pleasing  the  design  or  elaborate  the  detail,  it  is  princi- 
pally in  the  colouring  that  these  rugs  claim  our  interest  and  admira- 
tion. The  colours  which  are  derived  from  vegetable  or  animal  dyes 
grow  more  mellow  and  beautiful  with  passing  years,  and  applied 
to  wools  of  finest  texture  acquire  a lustre  and  softness  which  in 
the  choicest  specimens  are  like  the  radiant  throat  of  a humming 
bird,  or  tints  at  the  close  of  an  autumn  day.  The  different  shades 
have  different  moods,  expressing  peace,  joy,  pensiveness,  sorrow, 
the  deep  meaning  of  which  the  Oriental  mind  with  its  subtle  and 
serious  imagination  has  grasped  as  has  none  other.  Moreover, 
in  all  truly  fine  pieces  there  is  perfect  harmony  of  tone.  It  is  in 
this  richness,  suggestiveness,  and  harmony  that  the  greatest  ar- 
tistic value  lies. 

That  all  do  not  appreciate  these  qualities  is  not  because  they  do 
not  exist;  for  the  keen  perception  of  colour,  like  the  keen  percep- 
tion of  music,  is  a faculty  granted  to  one  person  but  denied  to  an- 
other. Even  to  those  who  take  delight  in  colour  there  are  different 
degrees  of  appreciation.  “The  fact  is,”  said  John  Ruskin,  “we 
none  of  us  enough  appreciate  the  nobleness  and  sacredness  of  colour.” 
But  as  the  ear  can  be  cultivated  to  a higher  taste  for  music,  so  can 
the  eye  be  cultivated  to  a higher  taste  for  colour;  and  to  fully  appre- 
ciate the  beauties  of  Oriental  rugs  it  is  necessary  to  develop  this 
faculty  to  its  fullest  extent. 

And  yet  it  is  not  alone  as  works  of  art  that  Oriental  rugs  interest 
us.  They  suggest  something  of  the  life  and  religious  thought  of 
the  people  who  made  them.  Some  seem  redolent  with  the  fra- 
grance of  flowers,  others  reflect  the  spirit  of  desert  wastes  and 
wind-swept  steppes.  So,  too,  in  the  colours  and  designs  of  some 
appear  the  symbols  of  that  mysticism  with  which  the  minds  of  the 
followers  of  Zoroaster  in  their  effort  to  commune  with  the  unseen 


INTRODUCTION 


19 


forces  of  the  universe  were  imbued;  and  though  the  original  mean- 
ing of  many  of  these  symbols  has  been  forgotten,  the  study  of 
others  leads  to  a better  understanding  of  the  life-thought  of  the 
weavers. 

Realising,  then,  that  Asia  has  been  the  cradle  from  which  has 
come  the  highest  expression  of  many  forms  of  artistic  achievement, 
and  that  the  Western  mind  is  now  assigning  to  its  woven  fabrics 
their  proper  place  in  the  galleries  of  art,  we  may  begin  the  study 
of  Oriental  rugs  with  the  assurance  that  the  further  it  is  pur- 
sued the  greater  will  be  the  appreciation  and  delight.  It  will  take 
us  among  strange  and  interesting  people,  and  over  fields  that  were 
historic  grounds  before  the  walls  of  Rome  were  built.  It  will  lead 
beyond  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia  to  the  land  of  the  Arabian  tales, 
where  the  splendour  of  former  days  is  reflected  in  tomb  and  mosque, 
and  where,  perhaps,  when  the  Western  world  grows  old,  there  will 
rise  again  from  crumbling  ruins  another  nation  that  will  revive  the 
poetic  and  artistic  genius  of  the  East  with  all  the  majesty  and  cre- 
ative power  of  the  past. 


CHAPTER  II 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 
RUG-PRODUCING  LANDS 

HE  artistic  character  of  Oriental  rugs,  like 
every  other  artistic  impulse,  is  subject  to  the 
influence  of  physical  environment.  This  influ- 
ence is  not  alone  that  to  which  an  individual 
weaver  has  been  subjected,  but  is  the  trans- 
mitted effect  of  the  accumulated  experiences 
of  many  generations.  It  appears  in  the  colours 
which  simulate  tones  displayed  by  varying 
phases  of  nature,  and  also  in  the  designs  or  symbols  which,  derived 
from  older  types  by  a long  process  of  evolution,  partially  reflect 
feelings  engendered  in  a people  of  highly  imaginative  and  poetic 
temperament  by  long  contact  with  elemental  forces.  Moreover,  the 
quality  of  material  used  depends  almost  exclusively  on  the  climate 
and  physical  conditions  of  countries  where  it  is  produced.  Accord- 
ingly, the  artistic  and  essential  characteristics  of  rugs  are  better 
understood  by  a knowledge  of  the  salient  physical  features  of  the 
countries  where  they  are  woven.* 

The  principal  Oriental  countries  that  continue  to  produce  rugs 
are  China,  India,  Afghanistan,  Beluchistan,  Persia,  Turkestan, 
Caucasia,  and  Asia  Minor.  As  all  of  them  are  contiguous,  they 
may  be  regarded  as  a geographic  unit;  and  though  there  is  much 
diversity  of  detail,  there  is  also  much  in  common.  From  near  the 
western  boundary  of  Asia  Minor  a vast  plateau  stretches  east- 
ward into  Central  Asia,  increasing  in  altitude  towards  the  east. 

* The  influence  of  the  physical  aspects  of  a country  on  its  art  as  expressed 
in  architecture  is  nowhere  more  clearly  shown  than  in  Egypt,  and  there  is  little 
doubt  that,  likewise,  the  character  of  the  native  rugs  was  influenced  by  the  spirit 
of  the  sluggish  Nile  and  the  boundless  desert  wastes.  But  as  Egypt  long  ago 
ceased  to  be  a rug-producing  country,  and  none  of  its  ancient  rugs  remain,  it  will 
only  be  briefly  referred  to  in  this  work,  though  symbolic  designs  which  had  their 
origin  there  during  the  Caliphate  or  even  earlier  were  adopted  by  foreign  weavers 
and  occasionally  appear  with  modified  form  in  modern  rugs. 


RUG-PRODUCING  LANDS 


21 


Its  mean  elevation  in  Asia  Minor  is  from  two  thousand  to  three 
thousand  feet,  and  as  it  extends  beyond  the  Zagros  Mountains 
and  crosses  the  northern  half  of  Persia,  it  rises  from  four  thousand 
to  five  thousand  feet.  Continuing  eastward  through  Southern 
Turkestan  and  Afghanistan  it  increases  in  altitude  until  it  has  risen 
to  nearly  twelve  thousand  feet  in  the  lofty  tablelands  of  Central 
Asia,  where  it  begins  to  descend  as  it  extends  farther  into  the  desert 
of  Gobi.  From  the  western  part  of  this  plateau  a spur  extends 
northward  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  to  form  the  high 
tableland  of  Caucasia,  which  has  a mean  elevation  of  about  seven 
thousand  feet. 

The  general  topographic  features  of  this  plateau  include  great 
stretches  of  comparatively  level  land,  broad  tracts  from  which 
there  is  no  drainage  to  the  sea,  and  sandy  desert  wastes.  On  almost 
every  side  it  is  bounded  by  mountain  chains  and  is  intersected  by 
transverse  ridges  that  lift  still  higher  peaks  where  rests  the  per- 
petual snow.  Throughout  the  deserts  and  large  parts  of  the  table- 
lands the  rainfall  is  slight,  so  that  there  are  but  few  important  river 
courses. 

The  cultivated  portions  of  this  vast  area  are  relatively  small, 
and  consist  largely  of  strips  of  land  in  fertile  valleys,  through  which 
flow  perennial  streams.  From  time  immemorial  these  streams  have 
been  used  for  irrigation,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  districts  have 
prospered  by  abundant  harvests.  In  one  or  another  of  these  valleys 
have  been  built  the  principal  cities,  within  the  walls  of  which  were 
imposing  temples  that  stimulated  religious  fervour,  schools  of  learn- 
ing to  quicken  the  intellect,  and  gardens  where  perfumed  flowers 
and  the  songs  of  birds  delighted  the  testhetic  senses.  In  these 
cities  science,  philosophy,  religion,  and  art  received  their  highest 
development.  In  them  lived  the  most  skilled  artisans  and  artists 
of  the  Orient;  and  the  products  of  the  loom  were  of  the  finest 
quality. 

Beyond  these  valleys  are  great  stretches  of  uncultivated  tracts 
consisting  of  plains,  hills,  and  mountains.  Some  of  these  tracts  are 
naturally  fertile  and  could  be  made  productive,  but  at  present  are  used 
only  for  pasturage,  and  over  them  numberless  tribes  of  fierce  nomads 
drive  their  flocks  of  sheep.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  land  has  no 
drainage  to  the  sea,  so  that  the  streams  and  rivers  that  flow  into  it 
empty  into  small  lakes  or  are  finally  absorbed,  the  soil  becomes  im- 
pregnated with  alkali  deposited  from  the  waters,  and  the  grass  is 


22 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


scanty.  There  are  also  sandy  wastes  of  great  extent  where  scarcely  any 
animal  life  can  exist.  Moreover  in  many  parts  of  the  country  the 
rain  falls  only  during  a few  months  of  the  year,  and  more  abundantly 
in  the  higher  altitudes,  so  that  the  nomads  are  constantly  searching 
for  fresh  pasturage,  and  moving  from  the  lowlands,  where  the  grass 
dies  after  the  rainy  season,  to  the  higher  altitudes,  from  which  they 
return  again  at  the  approach  of  winter.  So  numerous  are  the  flocks 
that  in  the  struggle  for  pasture  the  weaker  tribes  are  driven  to  the 
poorer  land. 

The  pastoral  life,  the  necessity  of  moving  from  place  to  place, 
the  strife  resulting  from  the  difference  in  quality  of  pasture,  have 
affected  the  temperament  and  character  of  the  people.  The  bound- 
less stretches  of  land,  the  clear  atmosphere,  the  burning  desert 
sands,  the  delicate  mirage,  and  the  starry  heavens,  have  made  men 
hospitable,  thoughtful,  devotional;  constant  wanderings  have  made 
them  independent;  the  struggle  for  pasturage  has  made  them  law- 
less and  cruel.  These  qualities  are  reflected  to  some  extent  in  their 
woven  fabrics,  which  lack  the  high  artistic  finish  of  those  woven  in 
cities.  A large  proportion  of  them  are  prayer  rugs  and  contain 
symbols  of  the  sun  and  fire  worship.  The  designs  are  barbaric,  and 
many  are  doubtless  the  same  as  those  used  hundreds  of  years  ago. 
The  colours  of  the  old  pieces,  woven  on  upland  plains  or  in  moun- 
tain fastnesses,  blend  less  harmoniously  than  those  woven  by  more 
cultured  weavers;  but  they  frequently  possess  rich,  pure  tones, 
which  are  no  longer  seen  in  the  modern  rugs.  As  even  a partial 
expression  of  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  a people,  there  are  no 
rugs  from  the  Orient  more  worthy  of  study  than  the  rare  old  pieces 
woven  by  nomadic  tribes. 

Not  only  physical  environment  but  the  conquests  of  foreign 
enemies,  as  well  'as  political  struggles  at  home,  have  had  an  im- 
portant influence  on  all  art.  It  will  be  of  interest,  therefore,  to 
briefly  review  the  histories  of  Central  and  Southwestern  Asia, 
where  rugs  have  been  made  for  over  three  thousand  years,  in  order 
to  understand  the  different  racial  influences  which  have  affected 
their  artistic  development. 

In  the  rich  valleys  near  the  mouths  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
dwelt  in  the  remote  past  a race  of  unknown  origin  called  Sumerians, 
and  to  the  north  of  them  lived  another  people  known  as  the  Ac- 
cadians.  These  races  built  canals,  cultivated  the  soil,  established 
towns,  and  invented  the  cuneiform  writing.  They  lived  in  harmony 


Plate  1.  Kiiorassan  Rug 


RUG-PRODUCING  LANDS 


23 


with  one  another,  and  continued  to  prosper  until  about  3000  b.c., 
when  the  Semitic  race  of  the  Chaldees,  appearing  from  an  unknown 
land,  subdued  them.  The  Chaldees,  however,  allowed  the  con- 
quered races  to  retain  part  of  their  lands,  adopted  their  civilisation, 
and  about  the  year  2500  b.c.  built  the  city  of  Babylon,  the  foun- 
dation of  which  biblical  students  claim  was  laid  by  the  mighty 
hunter  Nimrod.  By  cultivating  the  surrounding  country,  by  de- 
veloping its  trade  and  commerce,  the  Babylonians  became  a wealthy 
and  powerful  nation;  and  by  encouraging  manufactures,  art,  and 
science,  they  became  noted  for  their  delicate  fabrics,  magnificent 
temples,  and  knowledge  of  mathematics  and  astronomy. 

About  the  year  2000  b.c.  a number  of  tribesmen,  among  whom 
was  Abraham,  migrated  with  their  flocks  to  the  upper  valleys  of 
the  Tigris  and  founded  Nineveh.  A century  later  the  land  occu- 
pied by  colonists  who  settled  about  Nineveh  was  known  as  Assyria. 
It  increased  in  numbers  and  in  power  until,  in  1300  b.c.,  it  gained 
its  first  victory  over  Babylon;  and  during  the  next  four  hundred 
years,  though  meeting  with  occasional  reverses,  it  extended  its 
rule  over  Babylonia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Assyria,  and  received  tribute 
even  from  Egypt.  It  thus  became  the  first  great  conquering  power 
in  Southwestern  Asia.  In  their  magnificent  palaces  of  Nineveh, 
surrounded  by  luxury,  the  rulers  of  Assyria  were  resting  in  sup- 
posed security  when  a powerful  and  unexpected  enemy  appeared 
from  the  land  now  known  as  Persia. 

When  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  were  inhabited 
by  Sumerians  and  Accadians,  Iran,  which  included  modern  Persia, 
was  similarly  inhabited  by  races  of  unknown  origin.  Subsequently, 
but  at  an  exceedingly  remote  period,  from  the  region  about  the 
Oxus  river  in  Western  Asia  two  branches  of  the  great  Aryan  family 
migrated  to  Iran.  One  of  these,  which  settled  in  the  northern 
part,  was  known  as  the  Medes;  the  other,  which  settled  in  the  south- 
ern part,  was  known  as  the  Persians.  Both  Medes  and  Persians 
subdued  the  native  races  and  in  the  course  of  centuries  constructed 
powerful  empires.  The  former  were  the  first  to  extend  their  con- 
quests, and  forming  an  alliance  with  the  viceroy  of  Babylon  they 
attacked  Nineveh  in  the  year  006  b.c.  and  destroyed  it.  Babylon 
now  became  the  mistress  of  all  Mesopotamia,  and  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar it  was  enlarged  to  cover  an  area  of  one  hundred  square 
miles,  and  surrounded  by  walls  three  hundred  feet  high.  These 
walls  enclosed  parks,  orchards,  gardens,  and  a city  that  soon  be- 


24 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


came  famous  for  its  palaces,  its  temple  of  Bel,  and  its  Hanging 
Gardens. 

While  Babylon  was  rising  in  power  changes  were  occurring 
in  Iran.  Cyrus,  leader  of  the  Persians,  instigated  a revolt  against 
the  Medes  and  conquered  them.  But  not  satisfied  with  making 
the  Persians  rulers  of  Iran  he  extended  his  conquests  westward, 
and  in  the  year  538  b.c.,  by  diverting  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates, 
surprised  Belshazzar  in  his  banquet  hall  and  became  master  of 
Babylonia.  The  complete  subjection  of  all  Asia  Minor  followed, 
and  for  the  next  two  centuries  the  warlike  Persians  were  the  dom- 
inant power  in  Western  Asia.  But  in  the  year  331  b.c.,  when 
Alexander  the  Great  defeated  their  armies  under  Darius,  the  Per- 
sian Empire  melted  away. 

Whether  in  Egypt  or  China  or  by  the  Tigris  the  art  of  weaving 
first  took  definite  form,  it  was  in  this  land  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh, 
of  the  Medes  and  the  Persians,  of  Abraham,  Belshazzar,  and  Cyrus, 
where  a few  remaining  monuments  attest  the  delicate  textiles  of 
those  early  days,  that  in  more  recent  ages  have  been  woven  the 
most  perfect  carpets  of  which  there  is  any  knowledge. 

During  the  succeeding  five  hundred  years  Persia,  Asia  Minor, 
Caucasia,  and  Syria  became  the  prey  of  the  Parthians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  to  whom  petty  tribes,  recognising  no  sovereign  power 
and  secure  in  their  mountain  fastnesses,  bade  occasional  defiance. 
About  the  year  226  a.d.  an  able  leader  of  one  of  the  Persian  tribes 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides,  which  during  the  reign  of 
Chosroes  (531-579  a.d.)  and  his  grandson  Chosroes  II  (590-628  a.d.) 
ruled  over  the  country  from  the  Oxus  on  the  north  to  Arabia  and 
Egypt  on  the  south,  and  from  India  on  the  east  to  Assyria  on  the 
west.  This  was  a period  of  prosperity  and  luxury,  the  glory  of  which 
continued  until  the  middle  of  the  VII  Century,  when  it  was  over- 
thrown by  a new  power  rising  from  a most  unexpected  quarter. 

In  the  inhospitable  land  of  Arabia,  noted  for  its  coffee,  dates, 
and  myrrh,  for  its  dreary,  sandy,  waterless  wastes,  a land  hitherto 
almost  unknown  in  history,  Mohammed  promulgated  the  religion 
which,  suited  to  the  temperament  and  desires  of  the  Bedouins, 
united  them  into  a fanatic,  militant  body  of  conquerors.  After 
his  death  his  successors,  known  as  the  Caliphs,  extended  his 
conquests.  Their  successful  armies  quickly  overran  Persia  and  over- 
threw the  Sassanian  rule;  then  marching  northward  into  Turke- 
stan and  as  far  east  as  the  Indus  they  overcame  all  resistance. 


RUG-PRODUCING  LANDS 


25 


From  the  Greeks,  by  whom  they  were  known  as  the  Saracens, 
they  snatched  Palestine  and  Syria,  and  invading  Egypt,  conquered 
it  after  the  long  stubborn  siege  of  Alexandria.  A little  later  the 
Arabs  became  masters  of  Northern  Africa,  and  settling  there  inter- 
married with  the  native  races.  Near  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  their 
African  descendants,  known  as  the  Moors,  crossed  to  Spain,  where 
in  the  year  711  they  vanquished  a powerful  army  that  opposed  them. 
During  the  following  year  they  subdued  all  of  that  country  and 
began  an  invasion  of  Northern  Europe.  Rut  on  the  rich  pasture 
lands  near  Tours,  where  the  infantry  of  Charles  Martel  met  the 
Mussulman  cavalry  in  one  of  the  most  decisive  battles  of  history, 
they  were  defeated  with  terrible  slaughter  and  Christian  Europe 
was  saved. 

These  conquests  of  the  Mohammedans  had  not  only  a political 
and  religious  significance,  but  also  an  important  influence  on  art 
at  a time  when  Europe  was  sunk  in  ignorance  and  barbarism.  Fond 
of  magnificence  and  luxury,  the  Caliphs  founded  great  capitals  in 
Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Spain,  and  built  palaces  that  have  histories 
which  sound  like  fairy  tales.  Bagdad  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris, 
with  its  sixteen  hundred  canals,  one  hundred  and  five  bridges, 
and  nearly  a million  people,  with  its  countless  baths,  its  many 
thousand  mosques,  and  its  royal  palace,  where  was  collected  the 
best  of  Asiatic  taste,  elegance,  and  splendour,  possessed  more  gran- 
deur than  any  other  city  in  the  world.  Gibbon  states  that  within 
the  palace,  furnished  with  Oriental  luxury,  hung  thirty-eight  thou- 
sand pieces  of  tapestry,  one  third  of  which  were  of  silk  embroidered 
with  gold,  and  that  on  the  floors  lay  twenty-two  thousand  carpets. 
In  Cairo  and  in  Cordova,  likewise,  the  Caliphs  surrounded  them- 
selves with  similar  splendour,  of  which,  unfortunately,  but  few 
traces  now  exist;  but  the  Castle  of  the  Alhambra  still  remains  as  a 
powerful  reminder  of  their  taste  and  artistic  genius.  It  is  largely 
to  the  influence  of  this  race  that  were  due  many  of  the  beautiful 
Spanish  rugs  such  as  Queen  Eleanor  in  the  XIII  Century  took  to 
England  from  Cordova  and  Granada,  as  well  as  those  of  other 
periods.  Moreover,  in  some  of  the  choicest  pieces  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Persia,  woven  during  the  XVI  and  XVII  Centuries,  are  traces 
of  this  early  Saracenic  art. 

For  about  five  centuries  the  militant  power  of  these  Mohamme- 
dans was  dominant  in  Southwestern  Asia  when  another  conquering 
race  appeared.  The  great  wall  of  China,  which  was  built  over  two 


26 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


hundred  years  before  Christ  by  the  famous  Che-Hwang-te,  to 
protect  it  against  the  invasions  of  the  Tartars,  turned  westward 
many  wandering  hordes  from  the  more  fertile  pastures  and  valleys 
of  Southeastern  Asia.  One  of  these  hordes  was  of  Turks,  who, 
leaving  their  homes  near  the  sources  of  the  Irtish  and  Yenisei  rivers 
in  the  Altai  Mountains,  settled  in  Turkestan.  Many  centuries  after- 
wards, to  escape  from  other  hordes  pressing  westward  and  to  reach 
fresh  pastures,  different  branches  of  them  migrated  southward 
and  westward.  About  the  year  1000  a.d.  one  of  these  branches 
known  as  the  Seljukian  Turks  gained  a foothold  in  Persia,  and  under 
Malek  Shah,  in  1072,  made  Ispahan  its  capital.  About  the  same  time 
it  extended  its  power  over  Asia  Minor  and  overran  Georgia,  where 
it  destroyed  the  capital  Tiflis  after  slaughtering  the  inhabitants. 
To  this  Turkoman  race  should  probably  be  accredited  the  earliest 
Mongolian  influence  on  Persian  textile  art. 

Somewhat  later  a people  numbering  forty  thousand  tents  were 
ranging  that  part  of  Mongolia  which  lies  north  of  the  desert  of 
Gobi  in  search  of  pasture  and  water.  One  of  their  number  gathered 
about  him  a few  followers,  and  by  his  own  genius  gained  the  as- 
cendency over  his  tribes.  He  then  allied  himself  with  another 
powerful  tribe,  and  reducing  to  obedience  all  the  Mongolians  who 
dwelt  north  of  the  desert  of  Gobi,  in  1206,  in  the  presence  of  his 
chiefs,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Genghis  Khan.  After  becoming  the 
ruler  of  millions  of  nomads  of  the  great  central  plateau  of  Asia 
and  conquering  part  of  China,  which  was  then  enjoying  a period  of 
great  wealth  and  prosperity,  he  invaded  Western  Asia.  Bokhara 
offered  no  resistance  and  might  have  been  spared,  but  learning  that 
some  of  the  Sultan’s  garrison  were  concealed  he  ordered  the  city 
to  be  burned.  Samarkand,  which  surrendered  after  three  days’ 
siege,  was  pillaged  and  the  inhabitants  were  slaughtered.  Herat 
appeased  his  anger  by  opening  its  gates.  Even  his  death  did  not 
stop  the  ravages  of  the  Mongol  horde  that  captured  and  sacked 
Bagdad,  and,  crossing  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  pillaged  all  Asia 
Minor.  In  1258,  Hulaku  Khan,  grandson  of  Genghis,  conquered 
Persia  and  established  his  capital  in  the  province  of  Azerbijan, 
where  his  descendants  ruled  for  over  a century. 

With  these  invasions  another  wave  of  Mongolian  influence 
was  felt  in  Western  Asia.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  effect 
on  local  art  by  the  settlement  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  in  Persia 
and  Asia  Minor  during  the  early  part  of  the  XI  Century,  it  was 


Plate  2.  Meshed  Rug 


RUG-PRODUCING  LANDS 


27 


inappreciable  as  compared  with  that  of  Genghis  Khan  and  his  fol- 
lowers. For  the  influence  of  Bagdad  over  Southwestern  Asia  was 
like  that  of  Rome  over  the  empire  of  the  Ctesars,  and  when  in  the 
middle  of  the  XIII  Century  it  was  plundered  for  forty  days,  and 
other  important  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  similarly  treated, 
there  was  no  longer  the  same  incentive  to  work,  so  that  art  for  a 
time  languished.  But  in  some  cities  the  artistic  spirit  of  the  people 
prevailed  over  the  loss  of  independence,  and  the  more  skilled  work- 
men were  encouraged  by  their  new  masters,  who,  recognising  the 
beauty  of  the  Persian  carpets,  sent  many  Persian  artists  to  China 
and  brought  many  Chinese  artists  to  Persia,  that  the  different 
races  might  derive  advantages  from  the  instruction  of  one  another. 
It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  from  this  time  the  influence  of 
Chinese  art  has  been  recognised  in  the  woven  fabrics  and  metal 
work  made  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Asia.  In  fact,  the  Chinese 
motive  known  as  the  “key  pattern,”  as  well  as  other  less  familiar  de- 
signs of  distinctly  Mongolian  origin,  appeared  for  the  first  time  in 
some  of  the  carpets  and  metal  work  of  this  period. 

Like  Turkestan,  Asia  Minor  has  been  one  of  the  great  battle- 
grounds of  the  world.  During  parts  of  the  XI,  XII,  and  XIII 
Centuries  not  only  Seljukian  Turks,  but  Mongols  and  Ottoman 
Turks  under  Murad  and  Bajazet,  rose  in  influence  until  all  Asia 
Minor,  as  well  as  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  was  subject  to  them.  But 
still  another  power  from  the  far  East  was  to  overrun  Asia  and  di- 
vert Bajazet  from  the  walls  of  Constantinople. 

Under  Tamerlane,  the  descendant  of  Genghis  Khan,  the  Mongol 
hordes  were  again  united  and  again  attempted  the  conquest  of  the 
world.  From  the  walls  of  China  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  from 
the  Steppes  of  Turkestan  to  the  Arabian  deserts,  his  victorious 
armies  overcame  all  opposition.  Never  was  conqueror  more  rapa- 
cious, more  bloodthirsty.  At  Ispahan,  seventy  thousand  inhabitants 
were  slain.  Georgia  was  laid  waste  and  the  people  were  mas- 
sacred. In  1401,  Bagdad  was  besieged  and,  when  taken,  a pyramid 
of  ninety  thousand  human  victims  was  raised  as  a monument 
to  the  Tartar  conqueror.  In  the  following  year,  when  the  armies 
of  Bajazet  and  Tamerlane  met  on  the  plains  near  Angora,  the 
Turks  were  defeated  and  Bajazet  was  captured.  But  now  the  tide 
of  Mongol  invasion  receded;  and  laden  with  spoils  Tamerlane  re- 
turned to  his  capital  at  Samarkand,  where  he  enjoyed  the  remain- 
ing years  of  his  life  by  surrounding  himself  with  a brilliant  court  and 


28 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


by  building  palaces  and  temples,  which  he  adorned  with  royal 
splendour.  With  all  his  atrocious  barbarities  he  had  a higher  appre- 
ciation of  art  than  his  Mongolian  predecessors.  At  his  capital  were 
assembled  skilled  artisans  from  Eastern  and  Western  Asia;  and 
there  at  the  beginning  of  the  XIV  Century  European  travellers  saw 
innumerable  art  treasures,  including  carpets  of  wonderful  workman- 
ship and  beauty. 

The  Mongol  power  also  gained  an  important  foothold  in  India. 
This  country,  like  Iran,  had  been  subjugated  by  a branch  of  the 
Aryan  race,  which  conquered  the  native  Dravidians,  and  remained 
dominant  until  the  VII  and  VIII  Centuries.  Then  the  Moham- 
medans invaded  it,  and  were  still  in  ascendency  when  Tamerlane 
crossed  the  mountains  and  attacked  Delhi.  After  the  lapse  of  more 
than  a hundred  years  his  descendants,  Baber,  Akbar,  and  Shah 
Jahan,  rose  to  power.  The  magnificence  of  their  courts  and  the 
splendour  of  the  temples  which  they  built  stimulated  Indian  art; 
and  under  the  instruction  of  Persian  artisans,  who  were  induced 
to  settle  in  that  country,  the  natives  attained  their  highest  skill 
in  weaving. 

With  the  death  of  Tamerlane,  in  1405,  the  Ottoman  power 
in  Persia  and  Asia  Minor  rose  again,  and  Turkish  victories  followed 
in  quick  succession  until  in  1453  Constantinople  fell  and  the  church 
of  St.  Sophia  became  a mosque. 

After  the  lapse  of  half  a century  Shah  Ismael  of  the  family  of 
the  Safavids  defeated  the  Turkomans  in  1502,  and  founded  a new 
dynasty  in  Persia.  With  his  rise  began  one  of  the  most  splendid 
periods  in  its  history.  Within  a few  years  victories  extended  his 
empire  from  the  Euphrates  river  to  Afghanistan  and  from  the  Oxus 
to  the  Persian  gulf.  This  was  the  land  of  ancient  Iran,  over  which 
from  his  court  at  Ardebil  he  ruled  until  his  death.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  Shah  Tamasp,  which  lasted  from  1524  to  1576,  the 
new  dynasty  was  threatened  by  the  Turkish  ruler,  Soliman  the  Mag- 
nificent, after  he  had  taken  Rhodes  from  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
and  invaded  Southern  Europe.  In  1534  he  captured  Bagdad  and 
Tabriz,  as  well  as  conquered  Shirvan  and  Georgia.*  But  the  lost 
territory  was  soon  regained  and  the  new  Persian  capital  was  estab- 
lished at  Tabriz  where,  as  will  be  seen  later,  were  woven  many  of 
the  greatest  masterpieces  of  Persian  textile  fabrics.  Much  as  these 

* It  is  said  that  he  carried  Persian  weavers  as  captives  to  Asia  Minor  and 
Constantinople. 


RUG-PRODUCING  LANDS 


29 


monarchs  had  accomplished,  it  was  Shah  Abbas  the  Great  who, 
after  ten  years  of  internal  strife,  succeeded  by  expelling  the  Turks 
from  Persia,  restoring  tranquillity,  and  establishing  commerce, 
in  elevating  his  country  from  one  of  devastation  and  confusion  to 
one  of  greatness  such  as  it  had  not  known  for  many  ages.  He  trans- 
ferred his  court  to  Ispahan,  where,  while  adding  to  the  magnificence 
of  the  city,  he  encouraged  art  even  to  the  extent  of  sending  to  Italy, 
for  study,  a number  of  the  most  skilled  artists  of  Persia.  These  in 
time  returned  and  exerted  an  influence  that  appeared  in  the  more 
elaborate  designs  of  carpets  of  a subsequent  period.  It  is  also  prob- 
able that  he  rendered  valuable  assistance  to  Akbar  of  India  in 
founding  carpet-weaving  in  that  country.  He  ruled  from  1586 
to  1628.  This  period,  during  which  America  was  a wilderness  and 
England  under  Queen  Elizabeth  was  still  struggling  with  the  feudal 
system,  was  the  golden  age  of  Persian  history  and  Persian  art; 
but  with  his  death  the  Safavid  dynasty  declined  and  art  decadence 
began. 

In  1722,  the  Afghans  conquered  Persia  and  for  a number  of  years 
ruled  it  with  horrible  cruelty;  but  they  were  finally  defeated  by 
Nadir  Shah,  who  captured  Herat  in  1731,  extended  his  dominion 
into  Georgia,  and  recovered  some  of  the  lost  territory  from  the 
Turkish  Empire  in  the  West.  After  his  death  the  sovereignty  of 
Persia  again  waned,  until  in  time  it  was  confined  to  its  present 
limits. 

It  thus  appears  that  from  the  earliest  times  recorded  in  history 
the  southwestern  part  of  Asia  has  been  subject  to  invasion,  and  to 
constant  struggles  between  the  different  races  of  the  East  for  su- 
premacy. Even  from  the  desert  of  Gobi,  the  flanks  of  the  Altai 
Mountains,  and  the  deserts  of  Arabia  have  poured  forth  armies  to 
devastate  the  land.  One  victorious  power  after  another  has  extended 
its  sway  from  the  banks  of  the  Indus  to  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  result  is  that  the  present  Oriental  textile  art  is  of 
a composite  character,  which  can  be  understood  only  by  taking  into 
consideration  the  value  of  these  racial  influences  that  have  con- 
tributed to  it  some  of  its  most  interesting  and  subtle  charms. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  MATERIALS 


S was  the  case  with  the  earliest  shepherd 
weavers,  many  nomads  living  in  unfre- 
quented parts  of  Asia  spin  the  wool  taken 
from  their  own  flocks,  then  colour  it  with 
dyes  brewed  from  roots  and  herbs  that 
they  have  personally  gathered,  and  finally 
weave  it  according  to  well-known  patterns 
into  fabrics.  But  in  large,  enlightened  com- 
munities the  manufacture  of  an  Oriental  rug  involves  a division  of 
labour.  Fr^m  the  shepherds  the  professional  dyers  obtain  the  wool, 
which,  after  colouring,  they  sell  to  weavers;  and  these  in  turn  often 
receive  their  patterns  from  others.  A knowledge  of  these  separate 
steps  involving  the  industries  of  producing  the  different  materials 
and  the  crafts  of  dyeing,  weaving,  and  designing  is  essential  to  a 
full  understanding  of  any  Oriental  woven  fabric. 

The  materials  that  were  formerly  used  in  weaving  were  gener- 
ally of  animal  origin,  such  as  the  wool  of  sheep,  goats,  and  camels. 
To  a more  limited  extent  silk  and  cotton  also  were  used,  and  occa- 
sionally hair  of  the  yak,  cow,  and  even  human  hair.  In  later  years, 
when  there  arose  a western  demand  for  eastern  fabrics  so  that  the 
aim  of  the  weaver  was  to  produce  an  article  as  cheaply  as  possible, 
flax,  hemp,  jute,  and  larger  quantities  of  cotton  were  sometimes 
substituted.  Since  all  of  these  materials  are  indigenous  to  the 
country  where  they  are  used,  and  are  affected  by  its  climate,  alti- 
tude, humidity,  and  fertility,  they  acquire  qualities  that  frequently 
give  to  rugs  a distinctly  local  character. 

The  wool  of  sheep  constitutes  the  warp  and  weft  of  at  least  half 
the  Oriental  rugs  and  the  pile  of  over  ninety  per  cent.  To  be  sure, 
in  Japan  the  pile  is  largely  jute  and  cotton;  in  a few  of  the  districts 
of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  it  is  mercerised  cotton  or  silk;  and  in  dis- 
tricts where  the  camel  is  still  a beast  of  burden  its  wool  and  fine  hair 
are  often  substituted  for  other  kinds;  but  throughout  all  the  rug- 


fW'Wffi 


YTTPUTiTi 


..-..7  . /"  •?  /7;. 1-V 


Plate  3.  Kirman  Rug 


THE  MATERIALS 


31 


weaving  countries  of  the  East  the  wool  of  the  sheep  has  been  and 
still  is  preferred  to  all  other  materials  for  the  pile  of  rugs.  This 
is  due  not  alone  to  its  warmth,  to  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be 
spun  and  twisted  into  knots,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  from  the 
remotest  times  the  inhabitants  of  these  districts,  like  Abraham  of 
old,  have  been  shepherds,  who  followed  their  calling  because  over  the 
steppes  of  Tartary  and  the  great  plateaus  that  extend  through 
Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Turkestan  spread  vast  pas- 
ture lands  that  seem  better  suited  than  any  other  parts  of  the  world 
for  the  nourishment  of  sheep  with  fine  fleeces.  In  fact,  a part  of 
these  districts  seems  to  be  the  natural  habitat  of  the  sheep;  for 
among  the  crags  of  some  of  the  lofty  mountain  chains  of  Central 
Asia,  and  farther  west  where  Eastern  and  Western  Turkestan  meet 
in  the  lofty  plateau  of  Pamir,  called  the  “Roof  of  the  World,” 
still  wander  great  bands  of  magnificent  native  sheep  with  enormous 
horns  and  brownish  grey  wool,  from  which  it  is  believed  sprang  the 
vast  flocks  that  now  browse  on  every  hill  and  mountain  slope  of 
Western  Asia. 

Centuries  of  care  have  effected  an  important  evolution  in  this 
native  stock,  for  in  no  other  part  of  the  world  are  there  sheep  with 
longer  and  more  silky  fleeces.  Nevertheless  there  are  different 
grades,  as  the  quality  depends  in  a measure  on  the  climate  and  pas- 
turage as  well  as  on  the  care  of  the  sheep.  Thus  in  the  hot,  sandy 
lands  the  wool  shows  some  deterioration;  but  in  the  cold,  dry 
climates  of  the  many  high  lands  of  Western  Asia  and  in  the  pastures 
of  particular  localities  the  wool  is  long,  fine,  and  lustrous.  For 
instance,  in  parts  of  Khorassan,  on  the  flanks  of  high  mountains 
near  Kirman  and  Shiraz,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Niris  in  Farsistan, 
among  the  rolling  uplands  of  Asia  Minor,  are  produced  uncommonly 
fine  and  beautiful  fleeces.  When,  moreover,  the  sheep  of  these 
localities  receive  the  care  that  is  given  by  some  of  the  nomadic 
tribes,  as  the  Uzbeck  Tartars,  who  not  only  shelter  them  but  cover 
them  with  blankets,  the  wool  acquires  a soft  and  silky  quality 
that  is  unsurpassed.  The  wool  produced  in  many  parts  of  India, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  poor;  for  not  only  are  the  serrations,  on  which 
largely  depends  its  value  for  textile  purposes,  less  numerous  than 
in  better  varieties,  but  it  is  harsh  and  contains  many  long  hairs 
that  do  not  well  unite  with  it  and  that  take  up  very  little  dye. 

The  wool  of  the  goat  is  much  less  extensively  used,  yet  appears 
in  some  rugs,  not  only  as  warp  and  weft,  but  also  as  pile.  The 


32 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


goats  of  Kashmir,  which  live  in  the  cold  climate  of  a tableland  three 
miles  above  the  ocean  level,  produce  the  finest  and  most  beautiful 
wool;  but  as  it  grows  near  the  skin,  and  beneath  wiry  hairs  from 
which  it  can  be  removed  only  with  tedious  care,  it  is  too  precious 
to  be  used  excepting  for  the  most  beautiful  shawls  and  choicest 
carpets.  Of  next  importance  and  finest  texture  is  the  wool  of  the 
Angora  goat,  known  to  commerce  as  mohair.  Formerly  there 
was  not  much  demand  for  it,  but  now,  on  account  of  the  consider- 
ation that  it  has  received  in  the  carpet  factories  of  recent  Sultans, 
it  is  found  in  many  of  the  rugs  of  Asia  Minor.  As  it  grows  to  an 
average  length  of  five  to  six  inches  it  is  easily  spun;  and  its  soft, 
lustrous  sheen  gives  to  the  rugs  in  which  it  is  used  a silky  and  bril- 
liant appearance.  Some  of  the  Bokhara  goats,  also,  yield  fine  wool 
that  is  used  in  rugs.  Yet,  as  a rule,  yarn  made  from  the  fleece  of 
the  goat  is  not  regarded  with  favour  by  weavers,  since  it  is  apt  to 
be  coarse  and  to  pack  closely.  Nor  does  the  wool  of  the  goat  mix 
well  with  the  wool  of  the  sheep.  There  is,  however,  a much  finer 
grade  growing  next  to  the  skin,  which  may  be  removed  with  a knife 
when  it  is  exposed  by  combing  the  longer  fleece  in  a direction  re- 
verse to  that  in  which  it  lies.  The  tougher  grades  are  preferred  to 
any  other  material  by  weavers  of  the  Afghanistan,  Beluchistan, 
and  some  Turkoman  rugs  for  selvages  at  the  sides,  as  they  afford 
excellent  protection  against  hard  usage.  Goat’s  hair  is  also  some- 
times used  in  these  rugs  for  warp.  Unless  mixed  with  wool  it  is  very 
rarely  used  for  weft,  as  it  is  not  sufficiently  pliable. 

Of  more  frequent  use  than  the  wool  of  the  goat  is  the  wool  of 
the  camel  which  grows  close  to  the  skin  beneath  the  long  hair. 
In  the  tropical  countries,  as  in  Soudan,  the  camel  has  no  wool, 
but  in  more  northern  latitudes  it  yields  a crop  which  increases  in 
quantity  and  improves  in  quality  as  the  climate  grows  colder. 
Thus  in  Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  and  in  most  of  Persia  and  Turkes- 
tan the  yield  is  small,  in  the  tablelands  of  Eastern  Persia  and 
Afghanistan  it  is  much  larger,  and  on  the  lofty  plateaus  of  Turke- 
stan and  Chinese  Tartary  as  much  as  ten  pounds  of  wool  is  obtained 
yearly  from  each  beast.  The  clip  is  taken  at  the  usual  moulting 
season  during  the  spring  of  the  year.  The  wool  of  the  older  camels 
is  coarse  and  dark,  what  is  taken  from  the  young  is  finer  and  lighter, 
and  the  most  silky  and  valuable  of  all  is  what  is  obtained  from 
the  unborn.  The  best  grade  has  been  more  highly  esteemed  than 
the  wool  of  any  other  animal,  and  rugs  in  which  it  constitutes  the 


THE  MATERIALS 


33 


pile  are  more  valuable  than  those  in  which  the  wool  of  sheep  is 
used.  It  is  seldom  woven  in  modern  rugs,  but  dyed  wool  or  goats’ 
hair  of  similar  colour  is  often  substituted  for  it. 

The  wool  or  underhair  of  the  yak  is  used  only  among  the  moun- 
tain tribes  of  Tartary,  and  is  never  found  in  any  of  the  choicer 
grades  of  rugs.  Occasionally  the  hair  of  the  horse  or  cow  is  employed 
to  a limited  extent  in  the  pile  of  nomadic  rugs,  where  it  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  coarse  and  wiry  character.  In  old  rugs  of  which 
the  pile  is  much  worn  cows’  hair  will  now  and  then  protrude  like  the 
hairs  of  small  bristle  brushes.  Only  very  rarely  is  human  hair  seen  in 
a rug. 

Natural  colours  of  the  several  kinds  of  wool,  which  have  made 
it  possible  to  dispense  with  their  dyeing,  have  always  been  taken 
advantage  of  by  weavers.  The  only  black  yarn  on  which  the  wear 
of  time  has  left  no  impress  is  from  the  fleece  of  the  proverbially 
despised  black  sheep.  Shades  of  white,  ivory,  brown,  grey,  rufus, 
and  even  a plum  are  obtained  from  different  varieties.  Likewise  a 
wide  range  of  rich  chestnut  colours  are  furnished  by  the  camel. 

It  is  but  natural  that  the  nomad  should  depend  on  the  wool 
of  his  flocks  and  herds  for  warp,  weft,  and  pile;  but  people  of  fixed 
habitations  have  employed  other  kinds  of  material  also.  Where 
the  sensuous  luxury  of  the  East  called  for  magnificent  carpets, 
they  were  often  woven  almost  entirely  of  silk,  which  was  easily 
obtained,  as  silkworms  thrive  on  the  mulberry  trees  that  grow 
wild  on  the  plains  of  Central  and  Southwestern  Asia.  Silk  rugs 
are  still  woven  in  a few  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia.  For  the 
cheaper  grades  of  rugs  flax,  hemp,  and  jute  have  been  sparingly 
used;  and  during  recent  years  cotton  has  been  widely  adopted, 
particularly  in  Persian,  Indian,  and  Chinese  rugs,  on  account  of 
its  cheapness  as  compared  with  wool.  It  is,  however,  almost  en- 
tirely as  warp  and  weft  and  rarely  as  pile  that  it  is  used.  Though 
much  less  durable  than  wool,  its  white  colour  is  far  less  likely  to 
darken  with  age;  yet  there  is  a poorer  variety  which,  after  being 
thoroughly  wet,  acquires  a dark  colour. 

In  the  preparation  of  these  different  textile  materials  wool 
requires  the  greatest  care.  In  some  parts  of  the  Orient  it  is  not 
washed,  and  the  lustrous  hues  of  the  pile  are  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  dyed  in  its  naturally  greasy  state;  but  in  other  parts  the 
grease  and  dirt  are  carefully  removed.  This  cleansing  is  a craft 
that  has  been  transmitted  from  parent  to  child,  and  is  practised 


34 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


according  to  different  methods  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
One  of  the  chief  essentials  is  an  abundance  of  clear  running  water 
free  from  alkali;  for  when  the  water  is  hard,  as  is  often  the  case 
in  the  more  arid  parts  of  the  country,  it  loses  some  of  its  cleansing 
properties,  and  potash  or  other  chemicals  are  required  to  counter- 
act this  unfavourable  quality.  After  the  wool  has  been  thoroughly 
washed  it  is  carefully  dried  in  the  sun  and  open  air. 

The  next  important  step  is  the  proper  sorting,  picking,  and  comb- 
ing. The  sorting  consists  of  the  separation  of  black  and  light  wool, 
or  of  an  inferior  from  a better  grade;  and  the  picking  consists  of 
the  removal  of  burrs  or  foreign  particles.  The  object  of  combing 
is  to  effect  an  orderly  arrangement  of  the  wool  so  that  it  is  ready 
for  spinning.  One  method,  corresponding  to  carding,  is  to  draw 
the  wool  repeatedly  between  rows  of  upright  spikes  set  in  a wooden 
frame  until  every  matted  particle  has  been  separated  and  all  the 
fibres  are  disentangled.  The  older  method,  still  employed  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  Orient,  consists  of  “teasing”  with  the  cord  of  a 
heavy  bow,  which  is  suspended  or  held  firmly  by  the  left  hand 
over  the  wool,  while  with  the  right  hand  the  cord  is  made  to  vibrate 
either  by  striking  it  with  a wooden  instrument  or  plucking  it,  so  that 
the  fibres  of  wool  are  separated  and  assorted  by  the  vibrations. 

When  the  wool  has  thus  been  prepared,  it  is  wound  about  the 
distaff  and  then  spun  into  yarn.  In  many  parts  of  the  Orient  the 
conmion  spinning-wheel  has  been  introduced  and  adopted  for  both 
wool  and  cotton;  in  other  parts  are  crudely  made  spinning-wheels 
of  different  design  and  about  the  height  of  a man.  The  natives 
of  districts  more  remote  from  civilisation  still  cling  to  the  primeval 
spindle,  which  sometimes  consists  of  no  more  than  a rounded  stick 
half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  a foot  in  length  with  a ball  of  clay  at 
one  end.  Many  of  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopo- 
tamia use  in  place  of  it  a small  stone  of  convenient  shape,  to  which 
is  tied  a strip  of  linen  a few  inches  in  length.  A few  fibres  of  wool 
are  attached  to  the  end  of  the  linen  by  twisting  them  about  it,  and 
a few  more  fibres  are  similarly  attached  to  these  when  the  stone 
is  suspended  and  twirled.  As  the  fibres  become  closely  twisted 
together  more  fibres  are  added  until  on  account  of  the  length  of  the 
thread  thus  formed  the  stone  reaches  the  ground.  The  thread  is 
then  wound  about  the  stone  and  secured  by  a couple  of  loops  so 
as  to  leave  a piece  only  a few  inches  in  length,  to  which  more  wool 
is  attached  in  continuing  the  spinning.  When  a large  ball  of  thread 


Plate  4.  Siiiraz  Rug 


THE  MATERIALS 


35 


has  been  spun,  it  is  removed  from  the  stone  and  the  process  begun 
again. 

One  advantage  of  these  simple  devices  is  that  they  can  easily 
be  carried  anywhere.  Even  to-day  a not  unusual  sight  is  a half 
barbaric  shepherd  following  his  flock,  while  he  spins  with  simple 
distaff  and  spindle  or  stone,  as  did  his  ancestors  thousands  of  years 
ago.  On  the  end  of  the  distaff,  that  rests  beneath  his  left  arm, 
is  the  ball  of  wool  from  which  he  selects  and  twists  the  fibres,  while 
he  deftly  turns  the  short  spindle  or  twirls  the  stone  with  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand.  The  threads  spun  by  professional 
spinners  on  spinning-wheels  are  of  small  diameter  and  are  the  most 
regular  in  size  and  texture,  those  spun  with  the  small  spindle  are  of 
larger  diameter  and  less  regular,  and  those  spun  by  twirling  a stone 
are  made  of  the  coarsest  diameter  in  order  to  insure  sufficient  stout- 
ness, since  they  are  the  most  irregular  in  size  and  texture;  yet  yarn 
so  made  is  the  most  highly  valued  by  all  weavers. 

Only  very  rarely,  indeed,  is  one  of  these  single  threads  used  for 
yarn,  since  it  would  be  apt  to  part.  Two  of  them,  therefore,  are 
twisted  together  to  form  a double  thread.  A simple  device  used  by 
many  nomadic  tribes  for  this  purpose  consists  of  two  short  sticks 
crossing  at  right  angles,  and  another  piece  with  end  like  a crochet 
needle  perpendicular  to  them.  The  threads  which  are  attached  to 
this  piece  pass  through  a hole  at  the  intersection  of  the  crossed 
sticks  and  are  twisted  by  twirling  them.  It  is  very  seldom  that  three 
single  threads  are  twisted  to  make  a triple  thread,  and  when  such 
is  the  case  it  is  the  work  of  a professional  spinner  who  uses  a large 
spinning-wheel,  and  never  the  work  of  a nomad.  For  the  weft  of 
many  rugs,  and  for  the  pile  of  a few  rugs  such  as  Sarouks  and  Kask- 
ans,  a double  thread  alone  is  used;  whilst  for  the  pile  of  most  rugs 
the  double  thread  is  again  doubled,  trebled,  or  quadrupled,  so  as 
to  form  yarn  of  two,  three,  or  four  ply,  and  even  yarn  of  six  ply  is 
sometimes  used.  A distinction  also  exists  in  the  manner  of  twisting 
together  double  threads  to  make  yarn  of  two  or  more  ply,  since 
according  to  the  custom  of  different  tribes  they  may  be  twisted  so 
loosely  that  in  the  length  of  an  inch  they  do  not  describe  more  than 
a single  revolution  or  so  tightly  as  to  describe  several. 

Until  the  introduction  of  the  modern  spinning-wheel  wool 
was  spun  in  the  Orient  exactly  as  it  was  ages  ago.  It  is  this  almost 
incredible  disposition  to  adhere  as  with  religious  fanaticism  to 
methods  transmitted  from  father  to  son  and  to  resist  as  pernicious 


36 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


every  attempt  at  innovation  that  makes  a precise  analysis  of  rugs 
possible.  Accordingly,  the  evenness  or  unevenness  of  single  threads, 
the  looseness  or  tightness  with  which  double  threads  are  twisted 
together  to  form  yarn  of  different  ply,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
the  ply  used,  are  a few  of  the  important  indices  for  distinguish- 
ing between  rugs  of  different  districts. 

Even  after  the  yarn  is  spun  it  is  not  always  ready  for  the  dyer, 
and  in  order  that  it  may  properly  absorb  the  dye  it  is  often  washed 
and  re  washed.  In  some  parts  of  the  Orient  it  is  first  soaked  in  warm 
water  and  carefully  rinsed  in  cold  water.  It  is  then  placed  in  a 
copper  pot  or  vat  containing  boiling  water  to  which  has  been  added 
carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda  and  potash,  and  stirred  for  about 
an  hour.  After  this  thorough  cleansing  it  is  again  washed  very 
carefully  in  soft  water  and  thoroughly  dried  in  the  sun. 

The  wonderful  sheen  of  many  old  rugs  is  due  almost  entirely 
to  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made.  This  material,  as  a rule, 
is  unsurpassed  by  similar  products  of  any  other  part  of  the  world,  and 
is  prepared  by  patient  races  who  know  little  of  the  value  of  time. 
The  simple  labour  required  is  in  itself  prosaic  enough,  yet  without 
a doubt  the  earlier  spinners  and  weavers,  while  following  their 
flocks  with  minds  free  from  all  conventions  and  limitations  of  art, 
discerned  the  elemental  forces  of  nature  in  all  their  freshness  and 
power,  and  from  them  drew  inspiration  that  bore  fruit  in  the  ex- 
quisite colouring  and  delicate  tracery  of  the  woven  carpets. 


/ 


Plate  i 


Niris  Rug 


CHAPTER  IV 

DYEING 


OWEVER  remarkable  the  achievements  of 
Oriental  art  in  any  field,  their  most  pleasing 
effect  has  always  been  associated  with  colour. 
Without  it  the  beauty  of  the  lustre  tiles  of 
Persia,  the  marvellous  porcelains  of  China, 
and  the  delicate  textiles  of  Western  Asia 
would  fade  into  insignificance.  It  is  indeed  the 
wonderful  harmonies  of  exquisite  tints  chosen 
by  the  touch  of  genius  from  a palette  of  many  thousand  pigments 
that  awaken  the  appreciation  of  the  luxurious  splendour  of  the 
East.  This  love  for  colour  is  inherent  in  every  rug-producing  race 
of  Asia  and  is  older  than  history.  It  is  but  natural,  then,  that  the 
earliest  carpets  should  be  radiant  with  glorious  tints,  which  in  a 
lesser  measure  are  reflected  in  modern  fabrics. 

If  high  praise  is  due  to  the  artist  who,  by  a skilful  association 
of  different  colours  of  co-ordinate  tones,  creates  the  picture  that 
delights  the  sense,  a fair  measure  is  also  due  to  the  artisan  who 
not  only  controls  the  secrets  of  the  dyes,  but  has  mastered  the  diffi- 
cult knowledge  of  their  proper  application;  for  the  beauty  of  the 
finished  woven  product  depends  on  the  judicious  dyeing  of  the  yarn 
more  than  on  anything  else.  From  father  to  son  for  many  genera- 
tions has  been  transmitted  a knowledge  of  those  particular  vege- 
table and  animal  products  of  root,  leaf,  fruit,  and  insect,  and  the 
manner  of  their  use,  by  which  the  imperishable  lustrous  sheen  and 
colour  of  the  finest  woven  fabrics  are  produced.  Indeed,  this  art 
requires  to-day  more  technical  knowledge  than  any  other  branch  of 
rug  weaving,  since  modern  designs  are  no  longer  more  than  the 
imitation  of  those  in  older  carpets;  and  so  important  is  it  regarded 
that  a successful  dyer  is  a man  of  distinction  in  his  tribe. 

The  sources  from  which  are  obtained  many  of  the  dyes  that  give 
the  innumerable  carpet  colours  are  recorded.  A few  of  them  are 
received  from  remote  countries,  but  most  of  the  plants  from  which 


38 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


they  are  extracted  grow  in  marshes  and  on  hills  and  plains  where 
the  nomads  wander  with  their  flocks.  Many  of  them  are  used  with- 
out blending,  but  even  some  of  the  seven  primary  colours  are  de- 
rived by  proper  blending;  and  from  a number  of  dyes  of  different 
strengths  and  qualities  are  produced  an  infinite  number  of  rich  and 
delicate  shades. 

The  principal  blues  of  Oriental  rugs  are  obtained  from  indigo. 
This  is  derived  from  colouring  matter  in  the  leaves  of  plants  of  the 
genus  Indigofer  a,  that  grow  to  a height  of  four  to  six  feet  in  the 
East  Indies,  when  they  are  cut  and  placed  in  a vat  containing 
water.  In  about  twelve  hours  fermentation  ensues;  and  after 
this  subsides  the  liquid  is  drawn  off  into  another  vat,  where  after 
one  or  two  hours  of  agitation  the  indigo  forms  as  a precipitate. 
Many  different  species  of  this  plant  grow  wild  throughout  Asia, 
and  from  the  earliest  times  have  been  used  to  produce  dye-stuff. 
Indigo  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  dyes,  as  by  using  it  in  con- 
junction with  others  an  infinite  variety  of  shades  result. 

Some  reds  are  obtained  from  the  plant  madder  ( Rubia  tinctorum), 
that  grows  abundantly  in  Central  and  Southwestern  Asia.  Its 
colouring  properties  were  known  to  the  ancients;  and  for  a long  pe- 
riod it  has  been  cultivated  in  Asia  Minor,  where  the  succulent  roots 
of  the  second  and  third  years’  growth  are  regularly  dried  and  pre- 
pared for  use.  Other  reds  are  derived  from  the  insect  cochineal 
( Coccus  ilicis)  that  lives  on  oaks  of  the  countries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  known  among  the  Arabs  as  “ kermes,”  sig- 
nifying Red  Dye.  After  the  discovery  of  America  another  species 
( Coccus  cacti ) was  found  that  was  more  productive  of  dyeing  quali- 
ties. The  females,  which  alone  are  valuable,  are  plucked  from  the 
trees  and  killed  by  exposing  them  to  vapours  of  acetic  acid,  or  placing 
them  in  hot  water,  or  in  an  oven.  From  their  dried  bodies,  of  which 
over  fifty  thousand  are  necessary  to  make  a pound,  the  dye  is  pro- 
duced. As  both  these  dyes  are  noted  for  their  fastness,  they  are 
constantly  used,  but  when  silk  or  wool  is  to  be  dyed  cochineal  is 
preferable  to  madder. 

The  yellow  dyes  are  obtained  from  several  sources.  Some  are 
from  the  berries  of  plants  of  Western  Asia.  Others  are  from  the 
leaves  of  the  sumach  bushes,  that  are  indigenous  to  nearly  every 
part  of  the  world.  An  orange  tinge  is  derived  from  the  turmeric 
extracted  from  the  short  root  stocks  of  a plant  of  the  genus  Curcuma. 
From  time  immemorial  a beautiful  yellow  has  been  obtained  from 


DYEING 


39 


saffron.  It  is  the  product  of  the  stigmas  of  the  fragrant  crocus, 
which  are  so  small  that  over  four  thousand  are  necessary  to  furnish 
an  ounce  of  dried  saffron;  yet  the  dye  is  so  powerful  that  it  will 
give  a distinct  tint  to  seven  hundred  thousand  times  its  weight  of 
water.  As  saffron  has  something  of  a stimulating  effect  on  the 
human  system,  it  has  been  taken  by  the  Persians  when  mixed  with 
their  rice. 

With  none  of  these  three  basic  colours  was  any  national  feeling 
associated,  yet  the  Persians  excelled  in  the  use  of  blues.  The  Turk- 
omans of  Turkestan  and  Asia  Minor  produced  better  reds  than  any 
other  colour,  and  the  best  yellows,  even  if  generally  inferior  in  posi- 
tiveness to  blues  and  reds,  were  those  of  the  Chinese. 

Though  other  primary  and  secondary  colours  sometimes  result 
from  the  application  of  a single  dye,  the  many  thousand  different 
tints  can  only  be  produced  by  the  blending  of  two  or  more.  More- 
over, the  qualities  of  the  same  dye  vary  greatly,  as  they  depend  on 
the  soil  where  the  plant  grew,  the  time  of  year  when  it  was  removed, 
and  the  weather  and  other  conditions  prevailing  during  the  dyeing. 

In  nature  green  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  colours,  but  in  car- 
pets it  is  most  unsatisfactory,  as  it  has  generally  a faded  appear- 
ance, due  probably  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the  dyes  of  which  it  is 
formed  by  blending  is  less  permanent  than  the  other.  The  Chinese 
greens  obtained  from  the  buckthorns  are  generally  the  best. 

Greys  and  browns  are  sometimes  derived  from  gall  nuts,  and 
reddish  brown  from  henna.  For  very  dark  browns  and  black, 
iron  pyrites  has  been  largely  used  in  both  old  and  modern  rugs; 
but  unfortunately  the  dye  has  a corrosive  effect  on  the  wool,  so 
that  the  black  knots  of  old  rugs  are  often  worn  to  the  warp. 

In  parts  of  India  flowers  of  the  bastard  teak  ( Butea  frondosa ) 
make  a favourite  dye,  from  which  are  produced,  by  blending  with  other 
dyes,  a large  number  of  shades  ranging  from  deep  yellow  to  brownish 
copper  tones.  Another  well  known  dye  is  Butti  lac,  obtained  from 
an  insect,  Coccus  lacca,  that  lives  on  the  twigs  of  trees.  It  is  a sub- 
stitute for  cochineal  and  produces  different  shades  of  red,  crimson, 
terra  cotta,  and  purple,  according  to  the  other  dyes  and  the  mor- 
dants with  which  it  is  blended. 

Besides  these  few  dyes  are  innumerable  others  that  are  used 
either  singly  or  in  combination.  Furthermore,  different  colour 
effects  are  produced  by  the  application  of  different  mordants, 
which  it  is  necessary  to  use  for  the  reason  that  without  them  many 


40 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


fibrous  materials  are  unable  to  absorb  a large  number  of  the  dyes. 
The  most  valuable  of  all  mordants  is  alum;  and  the  sulphate  of 
iron  and  tin  are  largely  employed  in  the  case  of  red  colours.  Of  the 
vegetable  mordants,  pomegranate  rind,  which  contains  some 
yellow  colouring  matter,  is  the  best  known.  Valonia  also  is  some- 
times used*  as  well  as  limes,  lemons,  the  fruit  of  the  tamarind,  and 
the  mango. 

In  the  monograph  of  Mr.  Harris  on  the  “Carpet  Weaving 
Industry  of  Southern  India”  are  a number  of  directions  from  an 
old  manuscript  owned  by  a dyer  who  stated  that  he  was  the  de- 
scendant of  twenty  generations  of  dyers  who  originally  came  from 
Tabriz,  and  that  he  had  made  his  copy  from  a Persian  book  of 
dyes  which  had  belonged  to  his  grandfather.  A few  of  these  are 
given  below,  because  they  show  not  only  the  dyes  and  mordants, 
but  also  the  methods  employed. 

“Birbul’s  Blue.  Take  cinnabar,  indigo,  and  alum,  grind  and 
sift  lighter  than  the  light  dust  of  the  high  hills;  soak  for  ten  hours; 
keep  stirring  it;  put  in  the  wool  and  soak  for  many  hours.  Boil 
for  three  hours;  wash  in  kurd  water,  water  in  which  kurds  and  whey 
have  been  well  beaten  up;  leave  for  three  hours,  and  then  wash 
and  beat  again  in  water. 

“A  Fine  Indigo  Blue.  Take  indigo,  soak  it  in  water  for  twelve 
hours,  grind  it  to  a fine  paste  in  a mortar,  add  some  Terminalia 
citrina,  pomegranate  peel,  and  alum;  and  mix  thoroughly.  Boil; 
put  the  water  into  the  hot  bath  and  keep  stirring  till  cold.  Now 
mix  in  some  iron-filings  water,  and  boil  steadily  for  another  two 
and  a half  to  three  hours;  wash  with  a beating  and  dry. 

“Ruddy  Brown  Grey.  Take  sulphate  of  iron,  Terminalia 
citrina,  oak  galls,  and  alum;  mix  well;  dry;  then  steep  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  Put  in  the  wool;  soak  it  for  twenty-four  hours,  then 
boil  for  two  or  three  hours.  Dip  in  a soda-bath,  wash,  and  dry. 

“Cinnamon.  Take  oak  galls,  acacia  bark,  cinnabar,  and  alum, 
and  steep  for  a night.  Put  in  the  wool,  and  soak  for  twenty  or  thirty 
hours;  boil  the  water  for  two  or  three  hours  and  give  a soda-bath 
wash;  dip  in  acidulated  water;  and  wash  again  with  beating. 

“Crimson.  Take  lac  colour  and  cochineal.  Steep  for  from  four 
to  six  days  in  the  sun,  in  hot  weather  for  the  lesser  time,  stirring 
constantly  till  a rich  deep  colour  comes  where  some  has  stood  for  a 
few  minutes  in  a thin  glass  bottle  and  settled.  Then  strain  through 
two  cloths,  and  put  in  pomegranate  rind  and  good  iron-filings  water. 


COLOUR  PLATE  II  — OUSHAK  CARPET 


The  colours  and  'pattern  of  this  antique  Oushak  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  best  examples  that  remain  of  the  carpets  woven  in  Asia 
Minor  during  the  XV  and  XVI  Centuries.  The  deep  blue  of  the  cen- 
tral field,  the  rich  red  of  the  medallions,  and  the  golden  yellow  of  the 
leaves  are  entirely  unlike  the  more  subdued  hues  found  in  Persian  rugs. 
Strongly  contrasting  with  them  are  the  more  delicate  tones  of  the  ten- 
drils and  leaves,  which  display  in  their  drawing  a keen  sense  of  refine- 
ment. In  the  formal  pattern  of  the  field  are  stateliness  and  elegance; 
in  the  narrow  borders  are  simplicity  and  grace.  Such  colours  and 
draining  show  that  the  early  Asia  Minor  weavers  had  an  intense  ap- 
preciation of  the  ennobling  qualities  of  beauty  and  harmony. 

Loaned,  by  Mr.  James  F.  Ballard 


T A 


V 

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-q«  a%5^at«V  tv-  7b  A mu»w  toswM.  akk  \mna  asVi  tm7  won?,  ^kiwytb 
.V". "■'v:.-v:n  ivvo  to  apVklow^  aA\  V, 

fcwAnS.  .%  ?:•  ««a\,  .tlH  \?5  fojsvooi 


■ 


DYEING 


41 


Add  mineral  acid ; steep  wool  for  thirty-six  hours,  then  boil  for  three 
hours,  wash  well,  and  dry. 

“Pale  Greyish  Green.  Take  copper  rust,  asburg,*  and  alum. 
Mix  well  with  any  hot  water,  not  boiling;  soak  wool  for  eighteen 
hours,  then  boil  for  three  hours.  Give  a bath  with  water  acidu- 
lated with  some  limes,  and  dry  in  shade. 

“Old  Gold  and  Rich  Yellow.  Take  turmeric  and  asburg,  cin- 
nabar and  alum.  Soak  all  night.  Steep  wool  for  twenty-four  hours, 
boil  for  four  and  a half  hours,  wash  with  a beating,  and  dry  in  shade. 

“Dark  Grey.  Take  of  the  fruit  of  Cupressus  sempervirens, 
seeds  and  seed  pods  of  babul  ( Acacia  arabica),  iron-filings  water, 
and  alum.  Steep  over  night.  Now  add  the  water  and  let  it  soak 
for  twenty-four  hours,  then  boil  for  two  or  three  hours,  until  the 
colour  is  right,  then  wash  and  dry  in  the  sun. 

“Rose  Colour.  Take  ratanjot  ( Onosma  echioides ),  a thought 
of  cochineal,  manjit  ( Rubia  cordifolia ) or  lac  colour  a very  little, 
and  cinnabar.  Add  water,  soak  them  for  twelve  hours,  put  in  wool, 
and  steep  for  thirty-six  hours;  cook  it  for  three  hours,  then  bathe 
the  wool  in  alum  and  wash  nicely;  afterward  dry  in  the  shade. 

“Persian  Scarlet.  Take  lac  colour,  and  if  you  choose  a little 
cochineal  for  richness,  and  soak  from  four  to  six  days;  strain  it  in 
two  cloths  and  add  alum  and  a little  turmeric;  let  it  stand  for  three 
hours.  Put  wool  in  and  steep  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  boil 
for  two  hours.  Take  out  the  wool  and  add  mineral  acid;  re-enter 
wool  and  boil  an  hour  more.  Wash  fifteen  minutes  when  cold,  and 
dry  in  the  shade. 

“Saffron  Yellow.  Take  turmeric,  cinnabar,  and  soda,  add 
water  and  keep  for  a full  day.  Then  add  some  alum,  make  the  dip, 
and  soak  the  wool  for  thirty  hours.  Cook  it  for  several  hours,  and 
dry  in  the  shade  after  beating  and  good  washing. 

“Rich  Yellow.  Take  asburg  and  turmeric,  soak  for  a night 
in  water,  steep  the  wool  for  twenty-four  hours,  add  alum,  shake 
out,  and  dry  in  shade.” 

Identical  shades  of  a number  of  colours  are  not  produced  in  all 
parts  of  the  Orient,  not  only  for  the  reason  that  soil,  moisture, 
and  climate  affect  the  colour  values  of  dye-stuff,  but  because  each 
family  of  dyers  preserve  inviolable  the  craft  secrets  transmitted 
from  their  forefathers.  Thus  it  happens  that  different  parts  of  the 

* This  is  a product  of  flowers  of  the  genus  Delphinum  that  grows  in  the  Hima- 
layas. It  is  also  obtained  as  a powder  from  Afghanistan. 


42 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


rug-producing  countries  adhere  to  particular  tones  that  help  to 
identify  the  locality  where  the  fabrics  were  woven. 

Unfortunately  the  Western  aniline  dyes,  which  were  introduced 
about  the  year  1860  and  quickly  adopted  because  they  are  cheaper 
and  less  complicated  in  their  application,  have  to  such  an  extent 
transplanted  some  of  these  fine  old  vegetable  dyes  that  a number  of 
the  richest  and  most  delicate  colours  found  in  the  rugs  of  a former 
century  are  no  longer  produced.  Thus  the  superb  blue  of  the  fine 
old  Ispahans,  as  well  as  of  lustre  tiles  and  illuminated  manuscripts, 
belongs  to  a lost  art.  The  disadvantages  of  the  aniline  dyes  are 
several:  they  have  a tendency  to  make  the  fibres  of  the  textile 
fabric  brittle,  and  when  it  is  wet  the  colours  will  frequently  run. 
Some  dyes  also  fade  more  readily  than  others,  so  that  if  a colour 
be  the  product  of  two  or  more  dyes,  the  resultant  tint  may  be  to- 
tally unlike  the  original.  On  the  other  hand,  not  all  vegetable 
dyes  are  fast;  but  as  they  fade  they  mellow  into  more  pleasing  shades. 
Efforts  have  been  made  to  encourage  the  use  of  old  vegetable  dyes; 
but  unless  the  laws  which  have  been  enacted  in  parts  of  Asia  to 
restrict  the  importation  of  aniline  dyes  be  more  stringently  enforced 
than  in  the  past,  the  cultivation  in  the  garden  patch  of  the  dye- 
producing  herbs  and  plants  will  soon  cease  to  be  the  time-honoured 
occupation  it  was  in  days  gone  by. 

Almost  as  important  as  the  art  of  preparing  the  dyes  is  that 
of  properly  applying  them  to  the  yarns.  It  is  an  art  that  demands 
infinite  pains  in  its  technique,  as  well  as  a lifetime  to  acquire.  It 
is  in  itself  a separate  profession  practised  by  artisans  who  guard 
with  jealousy  the  sacred  secrets  that  transmitted  from  generation 
to  generation  occupy  their  thoughts  to  the  exclusion  of  almost 
everything  else.  The  homes  of  these  professional  dyers  in  the  larger 
villages  and  cities  are  located  on  a stream  of  water  which  possesses 
mineral  properties  that  long  experience  has  proven  especially  suit- 
able as  solvents  for  the  different  kinds  of  colouring  matter.  Ranged 
about  the  walls  of  their  low  dwellings  are  jars  or  vats  contain- 
ing liquid  dye  of  various  colours.  Suspended  above  them,  from 
hooks  driven  into  beams,  are  the  yarns  from  which,  after  immer- 
sion in  the  proper  vats,  the  liquids  are  allowed  to  drain.  After 
this  the  yarns  are  exposed  for  the  proper  length  of  time  to  the  dry 
air  and  burning  sun.  It  is,  therefore,  the  suitable  mordants,  the 
preparation  of  the  proper  dyes  for  the  vats,  the  immersion  of  the 
yarn  in  correct  sequence  and  for  the  correct  length  of  time,  as  well 


Plate  6.  Feragiian  Rug 


DYEING 


43 


as  the  exposure  to  the  glare  and  heat  of  the  sun  for  a definite  period 
to  be  gauged  to  the  exact  moment,  on  which  the  colour  results  de- 
pend. This  complicated  process  by  which,  for  instance,  the  in- 
finitely different  shades  of  a red,  a blue,  or  a brown  may  be  conveyed 
to  yarn  by  using  the  same  dyes  but  by  slightly  modifying  the  steps 
requires  the  greatest  precision,  for  which  no  rule  but  an  experience 
amounting  almost  to  instinct  is  the  guide. 

There  was  a time  when  the  Oriental  had  not  learned  the  mean- 
ing of  tempus  fugit  or  seen  the  glitter  of  Western  gold,  when  his 
dyeing  and  weaving  were  proud  callings,  in  which  entered  his  deepest 
feelings.  Then  the  old  vegetable  dyes  that  mellow,  grow  softer 
and  more  lustrous,  were  almost  exclusively  used;  but  now  through- 
out all  weaving  countries  the  dyer  has  deteriorated  so  that  he 
can  no  longer  produce  some  of  the  rich  colours  in  use  half  a cen- 
tury ago.  Yet  remote  from  the  principal  lines  of  travel,  on  the 
edges  of  the  desert,  in  lonely  valleys,  among  rugged  mountains, 
half-tamed  tribes  are  still  dyeing  their  hand-spun  yarn  as  did  their 
fathers’  fathers. 


CHAPTER  V 

WEAVING 


the  tents  of  some  nomadic  tribes  may 
occasionally  be  seen  crude  looms  on  which 
are  woven  some  of  the  most  interesting 
rugs  that  now  reach  the  Western  markets. 
In  all  probability  they  are  not  dissimilar  to 
what  were  used  thousands  of  years  ago,  for 
it  would  be  impossible  to  construct  a simpler 
loom.  Where  two  trees  suitably  branching 
are  found  growing  a few  feet  apart,  all  of  the  upper  branches  are 
removed  excepting  two,  which  are  so  trimmed  as  to  leave  a crotch 
at  the  same  height  in  each  tree.  In  each  crotch  is  rested  the  end  of 
a pole  or  beam,  and  parallel  to  it  is  placed  another  extending  at 
a short  distance  above  the  ground  from  trunk  to  trunk.  Or,  as  is 
more  frequently  the  case,  roughly  hewn  posts  are  firmly  implanted 
in  the  ground  and  horizontal  beams  are  stretched  between  them. 
In  the  upper  one  is  a groove  with  a rod  to  which  one  end  of  the  warp, 
consisting  of  strong  threads  of  yarn  numbering  from  ten  to  thirty 
to  the  inch,  is  attached,  while  the  other  end  is  tightly  stretched  and 
firmly  secured  to  the  lower  horizontal  beam.  Sometimes  the  beams 
to  which  the  warp  is  attached  are  placed  perpendicularly,  so  that 
the  weaver  may  stand  and  move  sideways  as  the  work  progresses. 
But  among  a very  large  number  of  those  tribes  that  are  constantly 
wandering  in  search  of  new  pastures  for  their  flocks  and  herds,  it 
is  customary  to  let  the  loom  lie  fiat  on  the  ground,  while  the  weaver 
sits  on  the  finished  part  of  the  rug. 

Under  more  favourable  circumstances,  when  the  tribes  live 
in  villages  or  cities,  the  looms  are  so  made  that  the  weavers  are 
not  compelled  to  bend  in  order  to  tie  the  first  row  of  knots  or  stand 
erect  to  finish  the  last  rows  of  a long  rug.  Of  the  several  devices 
by  which  the  weaver  may  remain  seated  while  at  work,  the  crudest 
consists  of  a plank  used  as  a seat,  which  rests  on  the  rungs  of  two 
ladders  placed  parallel  to  each  other  at  the  sides  of  the  rug.  As 


a>  > 


Plate  A.  — An  Upright  Loom 


45 


46 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


the  work  progresses,  the  plank  is  raised  and  rested  upon  the  higher 
rungs.  More  frequently,  however,  both  upper  and  lower  beams  of 
the  frame  have  the  shape  of  cylinders  of  small  diameter,  which 
revolve  between  the  upright  posts.  The  lower  ends  of  the  threads 
of  warp  are  attached  to  the  lower  beam,  and  the  other  ends  may 
either  be  wound  several  times  around  the  upper  one  or  else  pass 
over  it  and  be  kept  taut  by  weights  attached  to  them.  Such  a 
loom  is  generally  used  for  weaving  very  large  rugs,  which  are  rolled 
up  on  the  lower  beam  as  the  work  progresses. 

In  Plate  A (Page  45)  is  represented  a loom  commonly  used  in 
many  parts  of  the  Orient.  When  preparing  it  for  weaving  two 
stakes  are  driven  in  the  ground  at  a suitable  distance  apart,  and 
about  them  the  warp  is  wound  in  the  way  a figure  eight  is  formed. 
The  warp  is  then  carefully  transferred  to  two  rods  that  are  at- 
tached to  the  upper  and  lower  beams.  If  it  has  been  carefully 
wound,  none  of  the  threads  should  be  slack;  but  if  desired  the  ten- 
sion may  be  further  increased  by  different  devices.  Two  other  rods, 
known  as  “ Healds,”  are  then  attached  to  the  front  and  back  threads 
of  warp;  or  in  the  case  of  a single  rod,  it  is  attached  to  the  back 
threads,  as  shown  in  the  Plate.  A lease  rod  is  next  inserted  between 
the  threads  of  warp  that  cross  below  the  upper  beam,  and  another 
is  placed  below  it  where,  if  necessary,  it  is  supported  in  position 
by  loops.  When  the  weaving  begins,  a short  web  is  generally  woven 
at  the  lower  end  to  protect  the  knots  from  wear.  After  the  first 
row  has  been  tied,  the  shuttle  carrying  the  thread  of  weft  is  passed 
between  the  front  and  back  threads  of  warp ; the  heald  rod  attached 
to  these  back  threads  is  then  pulled  forward,  so  that  they  are  now 
in  front  of  the  others,  and  the  shuttle  is  passed  back.  If  the  rug 
is  narrow,  only  one  shuttle  is  used;  but  if  the  rug  is  wide,  or  if 
the  weft  consists  of  two  threads  of  unequal  thickness,  a shuttle  is 
passed  across  from  each  side.  Every  thread  of  warp  is  in  this  way 
completely  encircled  by  the  thread  of  weft  as  it  passes  and  repasses. 
When  weaving  large  rugs,  there  is  an  advantage  in  having  two  heald 
rods,  as  by  their  use  the  distance  between  the  front  and  back 
threads  of  warp  may  be  increased.  The  object  of  the  lease  rod  is  to 
prevent  any  slack  caused  by  drawing  forward  the  threads  of  warp,  and 
is  accomplished  in  a very  simple  manner,  as  will  be  seen  by  studying 
the  drawing;  since  when  the  tension  of  the  back  threads  is  increased 
by  drawing  them  forward,  the  tension  of  the  front  threads  is  also  in- 
creased by  displacing  the  lease  rods  which  thereby  stretches  them. 


Plate 


Feraghan  Rug 


WEAVING 


47 


The  products  of  the  loom  are  divided  according  to  their  weave 
into  three  separate  classes.  The  simplest  of  these  are  the  kilims, 
which  are  without  pile  and  consist  only  of  warp  and  weft  to  which 
a few  embroidered  stitches  representing  some  symbol  are  occasion- 
ally added. 

A more  elaborately  made  class  are  the  Soumaks.  They  consist 
of  warp  covered  by  flat  stitches  of  yarn  and  of  a thread  of  weft 
which  extends  across  and  back  between  each  row  of  stitches  in  the 
old  rugs  and  between  each  second  and  third  row  of  stitches  in  the 
new  rugs.  In  the  narrow,  perpendicular  lines  that  define  both  borders 
and  designs  the  stitch  is  made  by  the  yarn  encircling  two  adjacent 
threads  of  warp;  but  in  other  parts  of  the  rug  it  is  made  by  the  yarn 
passing  across  two  adjacent  threads  of  warp  at  the  front,  and  after 
encircling  them  at  the  back,  recrossing  them  again  at  the  front. 
It  is  then  continued  across  the  next  pair  of  adjacent  threads  of  warp. 
The  result  is  that  at  the  back  of  these  rugs  each  of  the  two  threads 
of  warp  encircled  by  the  yarn  appears  as  a separate  cord,  while  at  the 
front  the  yarn  passes  diagonally  across  four  threads  of  warp.  As  this 
diagonal  movement  is  reversed  in  each  succeeding  row,  the  surface 
has  an  uneven  appearance  sometimes  termed  “herring  bone”  weave. 

By  far  the  largest  class  of  rugs  are  those  with  a pile.  When  mak- 
ing them,  the  weaver  begins  at  the  bottom  and  ties  to  each  pair  of 
adjacent  threads  of  warp  a knot  of  yarn  so  as  to  form  a horizontal 
row.  A thread  of  weft  is  then  passed,  as  often  as  desired,  between 
the  threads  of  warp  and  pressed  more  or  less  firmly  with  a metal  or 
wooden  comb  upon  the  knots,  when  they  are  trimmed  with  a knife 
to  the  desired  length.  Another  horizontal  row  of  knots  is  tied 
to  the  threads  of  warp;  again  the  yarn  of  weft  is  inserted;  and  so 
the  process  continues  until  the  pile  is  completed.  In  tying  the 
knots,  work  almost  invariably  proceeds  from  left  to  right  and  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top.  It  is  but  rarely  that  the  warp  is  stretched 
horizontally  and  that  the  knots  are  tied  in  rows  parallel  to  the  sides. 
It  is  still  more  infrequently  that  a rug  is  found  in  which  the  knots 
are  tied  by  working  from  the  centre  to  the  right  and  left,  and  to  the 
top  and  bottom.  These  interesting  exceptions  may  easily  be  dis- 
covered by  rubbing  the  hand  over  the  pile,  when  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  knots  lie  on  one  another  so  as  to  face  the  same  direction, 
which  is  the  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  work  of  tying  advanced, 
or  as  is  generally  the  case,  from  top  to  bottom. 

The  compactness,  durability,  and  value  of  a rug  depend  somewhat 


48 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


on  the  number  of  knots  in  any  particular  area.  Yet  if  the  yarn  is 
coarse,  the  rug  may  be  compact  even  though  the  number  of  knots 
be  small;  and  if  the  yarn  is  fine,  the  rug  may  be  loosely  woven, 
either  because  the  rows  of  knots  have  not  been  firmly  pressed  down, 
or  because  there  are  several  “filling  threads”  of  weft,  and  still  the 
number  of  knots  be  large.  A square  inch  is  a convenient  size  for 
measurement;  but  since  all  parts  of  a rug  are  not  woven  with  equal 
compactness,  the  measurement  should  be  made  in  several  places 
if  exactness  be  required.  In  loosely  woven  pieces,  such  as  the 
Oushaks  and  some  of  the  Genghas,  there  may  be  less  than  twenty 
knots  to  the  square  inch;  but  among  the  more  closely  woven,  as  the 
Kirmans  and  Bokharas,  are  frequently  several  hundred. 

These  knots  are  of  two  classes,  the  Ghiordes  and  the  Sehna. 
The  Ghiordes  are  found  in  all  rugs  of  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasia, 
in  some  of  the  rugs  of  India,  and  in  most  of  the  rugs  of  Persia.  They 
are  named  after  the  town  of  Ghiordes  in  Asia  Minor,  where  some 
of  the  finest  Asiatic  pieces  were  made,  and  which  tradition  states 
was  once  the  ancient  Gordion,  noted  even  in  the  days  of  Alexander. 
In  tying  the  knot,  the  two  ends  of  yarn  appear  together  at  the  sur- 
face included  between  two  * adjacent  threads  of  warp  around  which 
they  have  been  passed,  so  that  the  tighter  the  yarn  is  drawn  the 
more  compact  the  knot  becomes.  The  three  different  ways  of  tying 
this  knot  are  shown  in  Plate  B,  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3 (Page  49),  of  which 
the  second  is  known  as  a “right  hand”  and  the  third  as  a “left 
hand”  knot.  The  Sehna  knots,  which  are  used  in  the  Turkoman, 
Chinese,  many  of  the  Persian,  and  in  some  of  the  Indian  rugs,  take 
their  name  from  the  city  of  Sehna  in  Persia.  In  tying  them,  a piece 
of  yarn  encircles  a thread  of  warp  and  is  twisted  so  that  its  ends 
appear  at  the  surface,  one  at  each  side  of  the  adjacent  thread  of 
warp,  as  is  shown  in  Plate  B,  Figs.  4,  5,  and  G.  According  as  this 
thread  of  warp  is  to  the  right  or  the  left  of  the  one  they  encircle, 
the  knots  are  known  as  “right-hand”  or  “left-hand”  knots, f but 
in  the  appearance  of  the  carpet  there  is  no  distinction.  If  the  pile  of 
a rug  is  carefully  parted,  the  two  ends  of  yarn  forming  a Sehna  knot 
can  be  separated;  but  with  the  Ghiordes  knot  this  is  impossible,  as 
will  be  understood  by  studying  Plate  B,  in  which  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  7, 
8,  and  9 are  Ghiordes  knots,  and  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  10  are  Sehna 

* In  a few  rare  instances  a knot  is  tied  to  four  threads  of  warp. 

f Most  Sehna  knots  are  right-hand  knots,  but  the  Sehna  knots  of  a large 
proportion  of  Khorassan  rugs  are  left-hand  knots. 


Plate  B.  — Nos.  1,  2,  3,  7,  8,  9,  Ghiordes  knots.  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  10,  Sehna  knots.  No.  11,  Weft- 
overcasting. No.  12,  Double-overeasting.  No.  13,  Weft-selvage.  No.  14,  Double-selvage. 
Nos.  15,  10,  17,  illustrate  one,  two,  and  three  threads  of  weft  passing  between  two  rows  of  knots. 

49 


50 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


knots.  As  a rule,  the  Sehna  knots,  which  permit  of  closer  weaving 
and  clearer  definition  of  pattern,  appear  in  rugs  of  shorter  nap. 

The  nice  distinctions  in  the  technique  of  weaving  are  rarely 
understood  even  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  Oriental  rugs. 
The  general  pattern,  which  next  to  colour  is  the  characteristic  that 
most  quickly  arrests  the  attention,  is  often  the  sole  guide  by  which 
novices  guess  the  class.  The  more  experienced  will  observe  if  the 
knot  be  Ghiordes  or  Sehna,  and  examine  the  finish  at  the  sides  and 
ends;  but  few  give  the  peculiarities  of  the  weave  the  consideration 
they  deserve.  This,  perhaps,  is  because  only  those  who  have  made 
a special  study  would  believe  the  constancy  with  which  members 
of  a tribe  or  locality  have  followed  the  same  method  of  tying  the  knot 
and  inserting  the  weft.  The  different  methods  of  treatment  by 
separate  tribes  are  sometimes  only  slight,  but  they  afford  a most 
important  clue  for  determining  the  place  of  origin  of  doubtful  classes. 
In  fact,  nearly  every  class  has  a typical  weave  differentiating  it  from 
all  other  classes.  To  be  sure,  there  are  exceptions  to  the  established 
type  which  are  inevitable;  since,  for  instance,  a man  from  the  Fer- 
aghan  district  might  marry  a woman  from  the  adjoining  Hamadan 
district,  who,  to  please  her  husband,  might  weave  a rug  with  pattern 
common  to  his  district  but  follow  the  style  of  weaving  that  she  has 
been  familiar  with  from  childhood.  Nevertheless,  weavers  of  a par- 
ticular district  adhere  more  closely  to  a typical  style  of  weaving 
than  they  do  to  any  other  characteristic  of  a rug.  Nor  is  this  sur- 
prising, since  weaving  is  learned  in  earliest  childhood;  and  as  it 
contains  no  elements  calculated  to  stimulate  the  imagination,  it  is 
mechanically  followed  with  stereotyped  precision.  An  innovation 
in  pattern,  by  copying  some  strange  designs  that  strike  the  fancy,  is 
far  more  likely.  These  distinctions  in  weaving  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  those  that  affect  the  knot,  the  warp,  and  the  weft.* 

The  Knot.  — Not  only  may  a knot  be  tied  as  a Ghiordes  or  a 
Sehna  knot,  but  it  may  have  other  distinguishing  peculiarities; 
as,  for  instance,  it  may  be  of  fine  or  coarse  wool.  This  is  most  con- 
veniently observed  at  the  back,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  knots 
of  rugs  such  as  the  Bokhara,  Kirman,  Joshaghan,  and  Bergamo 
are  tied  with  fine  yarn;  while  the  knots  of  other  rugs,  as  the  Sam- 

* As  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  no  one  has  hitherto  called  attention  to  the 
many  precise  distinctions  there  are  in  weaving,  and  to  the  fact  that  each  class  of 
rugs  follows  a distinct  type  of  its  own.  For  this  reason  this  branch  of  the  subject 
is  treated  more  fully  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary. 


WEAVING 


51 


arkand,  Bijar,  Gorevan,  Kurdistan,  Yuruk,  and  Kazak  are  tied  with 
coarse  yarn.  Whether  the  yarn  be  fine,  medium,  or  coarse,  all  spe- 
cimens of  any  class  will  show  a remarkable  conformity.  Also  in 
some  rugs  the  knots  are  drawn  very  tight  against  the  warp,  while 
in  others  the  yarn  encircles  the  warp  loosely.  Any  one  who  has 
examined  the  back  of  many  Sarouks,  Kashans,  Kirmans,  or  Daghes- 
tans,  and  rubbed  the  finger-nail  against  them,  could  not  possibly 
mistake  them  for  a Shiraz,  Kulah,  Yuruk,  or  Karabagh,  which  are 
less  tightly  woven.  Again,  as  a result  of  using  yarn  in  which  the 
double  thread  that  forms  two  or  more  ply  has  been  very  loosely 
or  very  tightly  twisted  together,  there  is  some  difference  in  the  di- 
rection or  slant  of  the  strands  forming  the  yarn,  where  it  shows  at 
the  back,  though  this  feature  is  not  pronounced.  For  example, 
in  most  Afghans,  Yuruks,  Bijars,  and  others  the  strands  of  yarn 
where  it  crosses  the  warp  in  forming  the  knot  lie  for  the  most  part 
in  a direction  parallel  to  the  weft;  while  in  other  rugs,  as  Mosuls, 
Kurdistans,  and  Kazaks,  the  strands  of  yarn  slant  irregularly. 
Furthermore,  in  some  rugs,  as  the  Melez  and  Yuruks,  as  a result  of 
the  threads  of  yarn  being  strung  rather  far  apart,  each  half  of  a knot 
encircling  a thread  of  warp  stands  out  at  the  back  distinctly  from 
the  other  with  clear  cut  edges;  while  in  many  rugs,  as  the  Shiraz 
or  Selina,  each  half  is  very  closely  pressed  together.  Also  in  some 
rugs,  as  Sarabends  and  Afshars,  each  of  these  half  knots  where  they 
show  at  the  back  have  the  same  length,  measured  in  a direction 
parallel  to  the  warp,  as  width,  measured  in  a direction  parallel 
to  the  weft;  while  in  such  rugs  as  the  Kazaks,  since  the  yarn  generally 
consists  of  several  ply,  the  length  exceeds  the  width;  and  in  a few 
rugs  the  length  is  less  than  the  width. 

The  Warp.  — The  appearance  of  the  back  of  a rug  is  partly 
due  to  the  relative  positions  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled 
by  a knot.  If,  for  instance,  in  any  Kazak  a pin  be  thrust  through 
the  nap  wherever  a single  perpendicular  line  of  one  colour  appears 
at  the  surface,  it  will  be  seen  that  each  of  the  two  threads  of  warp 
encircled  by  a single  knot  lie  side  by  side  with  equal  prominence. 
This  is  shown  in  Plate  B,  Figs.  7 and  7a  (Page  49),  in  which  the 
former  represents  a section  of  a rug  cut  transversely  to  the  threads 
of  warp,  and  the  latter  the  appearance  of  the  rug  at  the  back.  The 
same  will  be  found  true  of  Beluchistans,  Feraghans,  Yuruks,  and 
many  others.  If,  however,  a Kulah,  Persian-Kurdish,  or  Karabagh 
be  similarly  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  one  thread  of  warp  to 


52 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


each  knot  is  depressed,  so  that  the  back  has  a slightly  corrugated 
appearance  (as  in  Plate  B,  Figs.  8 and  8a).  And  in  the  case  of  a 
Bijar  or  Sarouk  it  will  be  seen  that  one  thread  of  warp,  included  in 
every  knot,  has  been  doubled  under  so  as  to  be  entirely  concealed 
from  view;  with  the  result  that  the  foundation  of  warp  has  a double 
thickness,  which  makes  the  rug  much  stronger,  as  in  Plate  B,  Fig.  9, 
representing  a Ghiordes  knot,  and  Fig.  10  representing  a Sehna  knot. 
To  be  sure,  it  occasionally  happens  that  in  rugs  of  a particular  class 
some  may  have  each  thread  of  warp  included  in  a knot  equally 
prominent  and  others  may  have  one  slightly  depressed;  or  that  in 
rugs  of  another  class  some  may  have  one  thread  of  warp  depressed 
and  others  may  have  it  entirely  concealed;  but  as  a rule  these  tribal 
features  show  a remarkable  constancy.  These  relative  positions  of 
the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  are  partly  due  to  the 
degree  of  closeness  with  which  the  threads  of  warp  are  strung,  also 
partly  to  the  method  of  inserting  the  threads  of  weft  or  “filling” 
between  the  rows  of  knots;  but  more  than  all  else  they  are  due  to  the 
way  one  end  of  the  knots  is  pulled  when  they  are  tied. 

The  Weft.  — In  the  character  and  arrangement  of  weft  are 
technical  differences  that  are  more  serviceable  than  any  other 
feature  for  distinguishing  between  the  rugs  of  different  tribes  and 
districts.  So  subtle  are  some  of  them  that  they  can  be  learned 
only  by  long  and  painstaking  study,  and  are  appreciated  by  few  ex- 
cept native  weavers.  Nevertheless,  to  any  one  who  will  carefully 
examine  almost  any  well-known  classes,  it  will  be  apparent  that 
these  differences  in  the  weave  are  real,  and  that  they  are  sufficiently 
constant  to  differentiate  one  class  from  another.  The  fine  brown 
weft  of  the  Bokhara,  or  equally  fine  bluish  weft  of  a Sarouk  that  is 
almost  concealed  between  firmly  tied  knots ; the  fine  thread  of  cotton 
weft  passing  but  once  between  two  rows  of  knots  and  covered  only 
by  the  transverse  warp  of  the  Sehna;  the  coarse  thread  of  cotton  weft 
similarly  passing  but  once  between  two  rows  of  knots  in  the  Hamadan ; 
the  coarse  thread  of  cotton  weft  that  once  crossing  and  recrossing 
appears  irregularly  between  appressed  rows  of  knots  in  Kerman- 
shahs;  the  bead-like  appearance  of  the  threads  of  weft  that,  as  a 
rule,  pass  many  times  between  two  rows  of  knots  in  Genghas;  the 
crudely  spun  weft  of  coarse  diameter  crossing  and  recrossing  once 
between  the  rows  of  knots  in  modern  Mosuls;  the  very  fine  reddish 
brown  weft  that  entirely  conceals  from  view  the  warp  in  old  Ber- 
gamos,  — are  features  peculiar  to  these  separate  classes  with  which 


Plate  8.  Hamadan  Rug 


/ 


) 


WEAVING 


53 


every  rug  expert  is  familiar.  Tlie  weft  of  many  other  classes  is  equally 
distinctive,  though  there  are  exceptions  to  the  types.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  weave  of  many  rugs  woven  over 
a hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  is  different  from  the  weave  of  rugs 
woven  only  fifty  years  ago;  and  that  many  modern  pieces  cheaply 
made  for  commercial  purposes  are  more  crudely  woven  than  were  the 
same  classes  thirty  years  ago. 

These  distinctions  in  the  weft  relate  to  the  material  of  which  it 
is  made,  its  colour,  the  size  of  the  diameter,  the  way  in  which  it  is 
spun,  to  its  loose  or  compressed  condition  between  separate  rows  of 
knots,  as  well  as  to  the  number  of  times  it  crosses  the  warp  between 
them,  and  to  whether  it  is  inserted  with  much  or  little  slack.  Most 
rugs  are  woven  with  woollen  weft  of  a natural  colour,  but  occasion- 
ally it  has  a reddish  brown,  a blue,  or  a yellow  tint.  When  cotton, 
jute,  or  hemp  are  used,  they  are  almost  invariably  of  natural  colour; 
only  in  a very  few  pieces,  as  some  of  the  Kulahs,  are  both  wool 
and  jute  ever  used  in  the  same  piece.  The  weft  of  some  classes,  as 
Bokharas,  Sarouks,  and  Bergamos,  is  of  a very  small  diameter,  and 
of  others,  as  the  Hamadans  and  Kurdistans,  it  is  of  relatively  large 
diameter.  In  some  classes,  as  the  Karajes  and  Genghas,  the  weft 
is  tightly  spun  like  twine;  while  in  the  Beluchistans,  Mosuls,  and 
Kurdistans  it  is  loosely  spun,  so  that  the  projecting  fibres  of  wool 
give  a rough  appearance  to  its  surface. 

Also  the  weavers  of  some  districts  invariably  compress  very 
firmly  the  yam  of  weft  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  while  other 
weavers  compress  it  only  to  a slight  degree;  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
Afghan,  Tabriz,  and  Kirman  the  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down  so 
firmly  that  the  weft  is  almost  concealed  at  the  back  and  the  trans- 
verse threads  of  warp  are  entirely  covered;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  the  Karabagh  or  Kazak  between  every  two  rows  of  knots  the 
weft  and  part  of  the  transverse  threads  of  warp  are  exposed  to  view. 
According  as  the  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down  upon  the  threads 
of  weft  or  not,  one  of  the  two  halves  of  each  separate  knot,  as  shown 
at  the  back,  may  extend  slightly  or  very  much  beyond  the  other  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  rug,  or  each  of  them  may  lie  in  a 
straight  line  at  right  angles  to  the  warp.  Comparing  Kazak,  Kutais, 
and  Tiflis  rugs,  for  example,  it  will  be  noticed  that  as  a rule  the  line 
thus  formed  in  Tiffis  rugs  is  nearly  an  even,  clear  cut  line  at  right 
angles  to  the  warp,  that  in  the  Kutais  part  of  one  knot  extends 
beyond  the  other,  while  in  Kazaks  this  unevenness  is  even  more 


54 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


conspicuous.  Or  again,  if  typical  Shirvans,  Kabistans,  and  Daghes- 
tans  be  compared,  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  Shirvans  the  half-knots, 
or  parts  of  the  knot  encircling  the  two  adjacent  threads  of  warp,  are 
often  inclined  at  an  angle  of  at  least  thirty  degrees  to  the  line  of 
weft  so  as  to  present  a serrated  appearance,  but  that  the  alignment 
formed  by  knots  of  Daghestans  is  nearly  even,  and  that  of  Kabistans 
is  intermediate.  To  be  sure,  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but 
these  features  are  remarkably  constant. 

The  number  of  times  that  a thread  of  weft  is  inserted  between 
two  rows  of  knots  varies  with  the  practice  of  different  localities,  but 
is  almost  constant  in  each  locality.  Weavers  of  Sehna  rugs  insert 
only  a single  thread  of  weft  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  which 
winds  in  front  of  and  behind  alternate  threads  of  warp,  with  the 
result  that  the  back  of  these  rugs  have  a checkered  or  quincunx 
appearance,  caused  by  minute  portions  of  exposed  warp  and  weft 
crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  In  Hamadans  a much  heavier 
thread  of  weft  passes  only  once  before  and  behind  alternate  threads 
of  warp,  so  that  the  appearance  of  the  weave  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  Sehnas.*  In  almost  all  other  rugs  the  weft  crosses  twice,  that  is, 
across  and  back  once,  between  every  two  rows  of  knots  so  as  to  com- 
pletely encircle  each  thread  of  warp.  The  weave  of  a few  rugs,  as 
some  Anatolians,  shows  the  weft  crossing  three  times,  that  is,  twice 
in  one  direction  and  once  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  the  Genghas, 
Tcherkess,  Bergamos,  and  in  many  rugs  over  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  old,  the  threads  of  weft  frequently  cross  many  times;  and  it  is 
not  unusual  for  the  number  to  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
rug.  In  Plate  B,  Figs.  15,  16,  and  17  (Page  49),  is  illustrated  the 
appearance  of  the  back  of  rugs  in  which  a thread  of  weft  crosses 
once,  twice,  and  three  times  between  two  adjacent  rows  of  knots. 
There  are  likewise  rugs  in  which  the  number  varies  with  methodical 
regularity;  for  instance,  in  Khorassans  it  is  usual  to  find  an  extra 
thread  of  weft  inserted  at  intervals  of  every  few  rows  of  knots; 
in  many  Ilerats  the  threads  of  weft  cross  twice  between  several 
successive  rows  of  knots,  then  three  times  between  the  following 
several  rows,  and  so  continue  to  alternate;  and  in  some  of  the 
Kulahs  a thread  of  woollen  weft  that  crosses  twice  alternates  with 
a single  coarser  thread  of  jute. 

* A few  of  the  weavers  about  Gozene  in  Asia  Minor  make  rugs  with  a double 
foundation,  in  which  a single  thread  of  coarse  weft  crosses  twice  between  parallel 
rows  of  threads  of  warp.  Only  rarely  is  this  method  followed  in  other  districts. 


WEAVING 


55 


As  the  shuttle  passes  back  and  forth,  the  thread  of  weft  may  be 
allowed  considerable  slack,  so  that  when  it  is  pressed  down  by  the 
comb  it  will  fit  about  the  sides  of  the  warp;  or  it  may  be  drawn 
tightly  across,  so  that  it  has  a tendency  to  displace  the  threads  of 
warp.  If,  for  instance,  a Hamadan  and  one  of  the  Feraghans  which, 
unlike  the  majority  of  them,  has  only  one  thread  of  weft  crossing 
between  the  rows  of  knots,  be  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the 
Hamadan  the  weft  crosses  with  hardly  any  slack,  so  that  the  warp 
stands  out  clearly  and  well  defined  at  the  back;  but  that  in  the 
Feraghan  the  weft  crosses  with  much  slack,  so  that  it  folds  about 
the  warp,  which  accordingly  seems  slightly  imbedded  in  it  at  the 
back.  In  some  rugs  the  weft  is  passed  across  once  with  very  slight 
slack,  and  as  it  recrosses  it  is  allowed  much  slack.  These  features 
of  the  weave,  which  are  followed  with  remarkable  constancy  in  the 
same  class,  can  be  observed  to  advantage  in  a fragment  of  a rug  cut 
transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  warp.  If,  for  instance,  the  weft 
which  crosses  and  recrosses  between  the  rows  of  knots  be  carefully 
removed  so  as  not  to  disturb  its  mould,  it  will  be  noticed  in  the  case 
of  many  rugs  that  each  thread  of  yarn  has  a similar  shape  of  moder- 
ately deep  undulations,  which  show  how  it  conformed  to  the  warp 
and  indicate  how  slack  it  was  when  inserted.  In  the  case  of  a few 
rugs,  as  the  Luristans,  each  thread  will  likewise  have  similar  undu- 
lations, but  they  will  be  very  prominent.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  weft  be  removed  from  some  classes,  as  the  Tabriz,  Sarouk, 
and  Kashan,  one  of  the  two  threads  will  be  almost  straight  or  have 
slight  undulations,  while  the  other  thread  will  have  deep  undulations. 
The  weft  of  the  Herez,  Herats,  old  Khorassans,  and  Koniehs  have  the 
same  peculiarities,  excepting  that  the  thread  with  very  slight  un- 
dulations is  of  three  or  four  ply,  while  the  other  is  of  a single  ply. 

The  only  instruments  employed  in  weaving  are  the  knife,  comb, 
and  scissors.  The  first  is  used,  after  each  row  of  knots  has  been  tied, 
to  cut  the  ends  of  yarn  to  nearly  the  proper  length;  the  second,  to 
press  firmly  each  row  of  knots;  and  the  last,  to  trim  the  nap  with 
care,  so  that  the  finished  product  may  present  an  even  and  compact 
appearance. 

Finish  of  Sides.  — As  the  sides  are  constantly  exposed  to 
wear  weavers  of  different  districts  strengthen  them  in  different 
ways,  which  may  be  designated  as  Weft  Overcasting,  Double  Over- 
casting, Weft  Selvage,  Double  Selvage,  and  Added  Selvage.  Each  of 
these  terms,  though  not  euphonious,  suggests  the  method  employed. 


56 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


In  Weft  Overcasting  (Plate  B,  Fig.  11,  Page  49)  the  thread  of  weft, 
after  encircling  the  threads  of  warp  to  which  the  knots  are  tied,  is 
wound  about  a much  heavier  cord  that  is  strung  at  the  side  of  the  rug 
for  a space  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  knots.  It  then  partly  encircles 
the  threads  of  warp  between  the  next  two  rows  of  knots  as  it  passes 
to  the  other  side,  when  it  is  wound  about  the  heavy  cord  there. 
As  this  process  continues,  the  cords  at  the  sides  are  completely  over- 
cast with  the  thread  of  weft.  When  the  sides  have  a Double  Over- 
casting (Plate  B,  Fig.  12),  heavy  yarn  is  wound  about  the  cord 
that  has  previously  been  encircled  by  the  weft.  Frequently  several 
threads  of  yarn  take  the  place  of  a single  heavy  cord.  Weft  Selvage 
(Plate  B,  Fig.  13)  is  made  by  placing  two  or  more  heavy  cords 
instead  of  a single  one  at  the  side  of  the  warp,  and  encircling  them 
by  the  weft  in  figure-eight  fashion.  As  they  extend  beyond  the  rows 
of  knots  they  form  a plain  flat  selvage.  The  Double  Selvage  (Plate 
B,  Fig.  14)  is  used  among  nomadic  tribes  such  as  the  Beluches  and 
Afghans,  whose  rugs  receive  an  unusual  amount  of  hard  wear,  so  that 
an  extra  selvage  is  necessary.  In  adding  this  extra  selvage  the 
threads  of  weft  are  carried  about  the  heavy  cords,  as  in  weft  selvage, 
and  then  the  extra  yarn  is  wound  over  it  in  figure-eight  fashion  so 
as  again  to  encircle  the  heavy  cords.  In  Added  Selvage  the  heavy 
cords  are  not  encircled  by  the  weft,  but  are  attached  to  the  side  of 
the  rug  by  the  extra  yarn  that  winds  about  them  figure-eight  fashion, 
and  also  encircles  two  or  more  adjoining  threads  of  warp.  Some- 
times also  the  selvage  is  “Mixed,”  or  made  by  the  weft  encircling 
only  one  or  two  of  the  heavy  cords,  and  then  an  extra  yarn  is  wound 
about  these  and  the  remaining  cord  or  cords.  Moreover,  the  Double 
Overcasting  and  Double  Selvage  may  be  “attached”  more  firmly 
to  the  sides  of  the  rug  by  the  yarn  passing  in  figure-eight  fashion 
about  the  adjacent  thread  or  threads  of  warp  between  the  two  rows 
of  knots.  When  a Double  Overcasting  is  thus  “attached,”  it  is 
somewhat  similar  to  a two-cord  Double  Selvage. 

These  are  the  principal  methods  of  finishing  the  sides,  though 
they  are  sometimes  modified  by  tribal  customs.  Simple  as  they  seem, 
skill  is  required  in  both  overcasting  and  making  the  selvage;  for 
if  carelessly  done  the  sides  are  frequently  made  to  curl.  This  is 
occasionally  found  to  be  the  defect  of  old  rugs,  the  worn  sides  of 
which  have  been  recently  overcast  by  inexperienced  weavers.  When 
such  is  the  case,  removing  the  stitches  and  overcasting  with  more 
care  will  remove  the  defect. 


Plate  9.  Sarouk  Rug 


I 


WEAVING 


57 


Finish  of  Ends.  — The  ends,  which  receive  more  attention 
than  the  sides,  are  treated  in  several  different  ways;  and  in  many 
rugs  a distinction  exists  between  the  treatment  of  each  end.  The 
simplest  finish  is  where  the  warp  and  weft  are  woven  like  the  threads 
of  a kilim,  and  extend  beyond  the  pile  as  a web,  which  may  be 
exceedingly  short,  or,  as  in  Beluches  and  Afghans,  several  inches 
long.  Frequently  the  ends  are  finished  by  a selvage  formed  by 
cords  heavier  than  the  weft  braided  into  the  warp;  or  the  upper 
end  may  be  doubled  back  and  hemmed.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
both  web  and  selvage;  but  though  the  finish  be  web,  selvage,  or 
web  and  selvage,  the  warp  of  the  end  finished  last  generally  forms 
a fringe,  and  often  each  end  will  have  a fringe.  Sometimes  each 
separate  thread  of  warp  hangs  loose;  sometimes  a number  a foot 
or  more  in  length  are  twisted  together  in  cords;  and  again  they  are 
knotted  or  are  tied  to  one  another  diagonally  so  as  to  form  a network 
from  which  hang  the  loose  ends.  Very  frequently  the  loops  formed 
by  the  warp  that  encircled  the  rod  extend  beyond  the  web  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  rug,  or  else  are  braided  about  the  ultimate  thread 
of  weft  in  the  web.  Though  the  warp  and  weft  are  generally  undyed 
in  the  body  of  the  rug,  the  web  of  the  ends  is  very  frequently 
coloured.  Some  of  the  webs,  particularly  those  of  the  Beluches, 
are  embroidered;  and  through  others,  as  the  Kurdistans,  a parti- 
coloured cord  runs  transversely;  still  others,  as  Bergamos,  are  adorned 
with  shells,  beads,  or  other  articles  to  avert  the  evil  eye. 

In  the  study  of  rugs  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  effect 
of  rough  usage  is  so  considerable  that  in  old  pieces  the  webs  of  the 
ends  have  frequently  disappeared,  leaving  short  fringes  composed 
of  the  ends  of  warp  from  which  some  rows  of  knots  have  been  re- 
moved, and  that  recent  overcasting  of  the  sides  may  take  the  place 
of  former  selvage. 

The  many  characteristics  of  knot,  warp,  weft,  sides,  and  ends, 
with  all  the  variations  made  by  innumerable  tribes,  remarkably 
constant  in  their  methods,  are  technical  peculiarities  that  are  un- 
interesting to  those  who  feel  only  an  aesthetic  interest  in  rugs,  yet 
they  demand  the  most  careful  consideration  of  whoever  would 
learn  to  differentiate  accurately  between  the  many  classes.  Though 
admitting  of  exceptions,  these  peculiarities  are  real  and  definite, 
yet  their  analyses  often  require  the  subtlest  perception  of  small 
though  exact  distinctions,  without  which  expert  understanding 
would  be  impossible. 


CHAPTER  VI 

DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


^^jOWEVER  well  woven,  however  resplendent 
in  rich  modulations  of  colour.  Oriental  rugs 
would  quickly  lose  their  fascination  if  in 
patterns  and  designs  there  were  not  at 
least  some  partial  expression  of  the  simple 
lives  of  the  people,  of  their  religious  feelings, 
and  of  that  veiled  mysticism  which  per- 
vades the  thought  of  every  Eastern  race. 

In  all  nomadic  rugs  as  well  as  in  many  others  are  innumerable 
reminders  of  common  life.  It  may  be  only  crude  outlines  of  the 
goat  or  camel,  or  realistically  drawn  rose  and  lily;  but  even  these 
are  suggestive  of  associations. 

Religion,  too,  exercised  on  the  character  of  rugs  an  important 
influence,  which  is  expressed  in  the  symbolism  of  both  designs  and 
colour.  Without  a doubt,  some  of  these  well-known  designs  have 
been  transmitted  from  the  earliest  times,  and  were  once  associated 
with  different  forms  of  idolatry.  Thus,  among  the  old  Babylonians 
the  sun  and  moon,  which  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  old  pieces,  rep- 
resented particular  deities;  and  very  many  of  the  oldest  Chinese 
rugs  that  remain  also  contain  symbols  of  their  deities.  In  the 
early  religion  of  Iran,  which  over  1000  years  b.c.  was  reduced  to  a 
system  by  Zoroaster,  the  elements  were  worshipped,  so  that  designs 
representing  these  elements  would  likewise  represent  the  divine 
forces  they  personified.  This  ancient  fire  worship  of  the  Parsees, 
which  even  to-day  has  a few  devotees  in  parts  of  Persia,  and  the  kin- 
dred sun  worship  have  added  much  to  the  symbolism  of  Oriental 
rugs.  Buddhism  also  has  contributed  its  share;  and  with  the 
spread  of  Mohammedanism  appeared  a Saracenic  influence  that  is 
frequently  recognised.  Even  the  two  great  sects  of  Mohammedan 
followers,  the  Shiites  and  Sunnites,  have  had  distinct  effects  in  the 
use  of  designs,  as  the  former  employed  animal  figures  and  the  latter 
prohibited  them. 


Plate  10.  Sarabend  Ru< 


DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


59 


There  was,  moreover,  a symbolism  that  in  a manner  expressed 
the  vague  philosophic  teachings  of  the  ancient  races.  It  was  but 
natural  that  the  early  weaver  engaged  in  tedious  sedentary  work, 
often  requiring  many  months  of  constant  application  to  complete, 
should  endeavour  to  express  therein  not  only  artistic  taste,  but  also 
the  spirit  of  his  innermost  thoughts.  So  as  he  wove  he  sometimes 
left  the  result,  though  poorly  defined  and  little  understood  to- 
day, of  that  struggle  to  interpret  the  great  mysteries  of  the  visible 
and  unseen  universe,  from  which  arose  the  crude  beginnings 
of  philosophy.* 

The  patterns,  however,  of  many  Oriental  rugs  are  chiefly  decora- 
tive. Even  a casual  examination  shows  that  in  all  of  them  the  col- 
oured knots  of  the  surface  represent  a border  surrounding  a central 
field.  The  former  serves  much  the  same  function  to  the  latter  as 
a frame  to  a picture;  yet  its  office  is  in  no  wise  subordinate.  Nor  is 
there  any  part  of  the  pattern  more  useful  in  determining  the  place 
of  its  origin.  For  this  reason  it  is  well  to  clearly  define  the  special 
names  which  in  this  work  are  applied  to  its  different  parts.  The 
lineal  divisions  are  designated  “Stripes,”  though  they  are  frequently 
spoken  of  as  separate  borders.  At  or  near  the  centre  of  the  border  is 
the  main  stripe,  which  is  generally  accompanied  by  a much  narrower 
pair,  one  on  each  side,  known  as  “Guard  stripes.”  Very  narrow 
stripes  are  sometimes  called  “Ribbon  stripes,”  and  those  of  only 
one  or  two  knots  in  width  are  called  “Lines.”  The  latter  are  of 
solid  colour  or  have  the  simplest  geometric  device.  The  decoration 
of  the  ribbon  stripes  is  also  necessarily  simple;  but  in  the  main 
stripe  of  artistic  rugs  the  patterns  are  often  exceedingly  elaborate, 
of  exquisite  colours,  and  co-ordinate  in  character  with  those  of  the 
field. 

The  fields  display  even  greater  diversity  of  pattern  than  the 

* Sir  George  Birdwood  has  made  the  statement  that  “A  deep  and  compli- 
cate symbolism,  originating  in  Babylonia  and  possibly  in  India,  pervades  every 
denomination  of  Oriental  carpet.  Thus  the  carpet  itself  prefigures  space  and  eter- 
nity, and  the  general  pattern  or  filling,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  the  fleeting, 
finite  universe  of  animated  beauty.  Every  colour  has  its  significance;  and  the 
design,  whether  mythological  or  natural,  human,  bestial,  or  floral,  has  its  hidden 
meaning.  Even  the  representatives  of  men  hunting  wild  beasts  have  their  special 
indications.  So  have  the  natural  flowers  of  Persia  their  symbolism,  wherever 
they  are  introduced,  generally  following  that  of  their  colours.  The  very  irregu- 
larities either  in  drawing  or  colouring,  to  be  observed  in  almost  every  Oriental 
carpet,  and  invariably  in  Turkoman  carpets,  are  seldom  accidental,  the  usual 
deliberate  intention  being  to  avert  the  evil  eye  and  insure  good  luck.” 


60 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


borders.  Frequently  they  are  covered  with  a heterogeneous  mass  of 
detached  and  unrelated  figures,  as  in  many  of  the  nomadic  rugs; 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  are  entirely  covered  with  repetitive  patterns, 
as  in  the  Turkomans;  or  with  intricate  and  correlated  designs,  as 
in  the  diaper  and  floral  patterns  of  so  many  of  the  Persian  and  In- 
dian rugs.  Others  consist  of  a background  of  solid  colour  on  which 
appear  isolated  formal  designs,  as  in  some  of  the  Khorassans,  or 
medallions  on  which  are  represented  smaller  figures,  as  in  some  of 
the  old  Sehnas  and  Feraghans.  Occasionally  the  medallions  are  so 
large  as  to  extend  to  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  fields,  and  thus  sepa- 
rate the  corners  into  nearly  triangular  shaped  sections,  such  as 
are  characteristic  of  a number  of  Persian  and  one  or  two  Caucasian 
rugs.  In  a few  of  the  latter,  also,  the  fields  are  covered  with  large 
geometric  figures  suggesting  the  medallions.  It  is  only  within  com- 
paratively modern  times  that  weavers  have  used  .solid  colours  for 
large  portions  of  the  fields.  The  intent  no  doubt  was  a saving  in 
labour  and  pains,  but  the  effect  is  frequently  most  gratifying;  as 
when,  for  instance,  the  space  beneath  the  arch  of  Asia  Minor  prayer 
rugs  is  of  a uniform  red,  blue,  or  cream,  relieved  only  by  a grace- 
fully suspended  lamp,  the  tree  of  life,  or  some  other  emblem  of 
immortality. 

The  patterns  of  prayer  rugs  are  not  only  pleasing,  but  have  a 
peculiar  importance,  as  weavers  of  certain  sections  of  the  country 
adhere  so  strictly  to  time-honoured  traditions  that  the  shape  of  the 
arch,  or  mihrab,  which  is  the  principal  feature,  often  denotes  the  class, 
as  well  as  the  group,  to  which  they  belong.  Some  of  these  arches 
are  illustrated  in  Plates  C and  D (Pages  61  and  63),  from  which  it 
will  be  seen  that  in  Persian  rugs  they  are  formed  by  gracefully  curv- 
ing lines,  but  that  in  rugs  of  other  groups,  with  the  exception  of  a 
very  few  old  Ghiordes  pieces,  they  are  geometric.  The  peculiarities 
of  the  arches  of  the  several  classes,  also,  are  observable;  as  those  of 
the  Beluchistans,  which  are  rectilinear  and  relatively  high,  and  those 
of  the  Bokharas,  which  are  tent-shaped,  flat,  and  small.  In  the 
Caucasian  group  they  have  a marked  resemblance  to  one  another 
and  also  to  those  of  the  Turkoman  rugs,  but  are  larger  than  the  latter. 
Again,  the  arch  of  almost  all  Asia  Minor  rugs  rises  higher  than  those 
of  any  others,  excepting  the  Persian,  and  extends  from  one  side  of 
the  field  to  the  other.  In  many  of  them  a panel  is  placed  above  the 
spandrel,  and  occasionally  a second  panel  is  placed  beneath  the  field. 
Above  the  niche  of  some  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasian  prayer  rugs 


Plate  C.  — Prater  Arches  of  Persian,  Caucasian,  and  Central  Asiatic  Rugs 


No.  1,  Antique  silk.  No.  2,  Kermanshah.  No.  3,  Kkorassan.  No.  4,  Sarouk.  No.  5,  Persian, 
XVI  Century.  No.  6,  Kashan.  No.  7,  Feraghan.  No.  8,  Shiraz.  No.  9,  Daghestan,  Ivabistan, 
Shirvan,  Chichi,  Kazak,  Karabagh.  No.  10,  Kazak.  No.  11,  Shirvan.  No.  12,  Karabagh  (not 
usual).  No.  13,  Beluchistan.  No.  14,  Bokhara,  Tekke.  No.  15,  Khiva.  No.  16,  Beshire. 

61 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


62 

is  woven  a small  rhomboidal  figure,  where  the  suppliant  plants  the 
pebble  or  bit  of  earth  that  he  has  brought  from  Mecca;  and  at  the 
sides  of  a few  arches  are  crude  figures,  where  are  placed  the  hands 
during  the  act  of  worship.  More  than  one  arch  is  the  exception; 
but  now  and  then  are  seen  two  and  even  four,  one  above  the  other, 
or  several  parallel  to  one  another.  These  and  other  special  features 
associated  with  prayer  rugs  will  be  considered  more  fully  in  subse- 
quent chapters. 

The  smaller  designs  that  appear  in  rugs  and  compose  the  general 
pattern  are  distinguished  as  geometric  and  floral  ornamentation. 
The  former  is  adopted  in  those  countries  where  the  population  is 
principally  nomadic;  and  the  latter  is  the  accepted  style  in  coun- 
tries where  exist  numerous  towns  and  cities  in  which  the  arts  have 
been  cultivated  and  where  a large  percentage  of  the  population  have 
enjoyed  an  advanced  state  of  society.  Thus  in  Caucasia,  Turkestan, 
Afghanistan,  and  Beluchistan  geometric  designs  are  characteristic 
of  the  rugs;  but  in  China,  India,  Persia,  and  part  of  Asia  Minor 
floral  designs  prevail.  Sir  George  Birdwood,  an  eminent  authority 
on  Oriental  rugs,  has  made  the  statement  that  the  geometric  designs 
are  found  among  the  lower  Turanian  and  the  floral  among  the  higher 
Aryan.  But  it  seems  most  probable  that  the  adoption  of  the  geo- 
metric or  floral  style  of  ornamentation  is  due  not  so  much  to  racial 
distinctions  as  to  the  state  to  which  the  textile  art  had  advanced 
among  the  different  peoples  and  to  the  waves  of  influence  that  at 
times  spread  over  the  countries.  Thus  the  early  rugs  of  Asia  Minor 
had  patterns  that  were  more  geometric  than  those  of  later  times, 
and  during  the  period  when  the  Mongols  ruled  in  Persia  geo- 
metric patterns  were  more  frequently  employed  in  the  rugs  of 
that  country  than  subsequently. 

In  all  rugs,  however,  some  trace  of  the  floral  design  appears. 
Even  in  the  Turkoman  weavings,  the  pattern  of  which  is  strictly 
geometric,  some  vestige  of  the  tree  of  life  is  manifest.  In  the  fields 
of  Caucasian  rugs,  in  which  are  represented  squares,  octagons, 
triangles,  diagonals,  lozenges,  stars,  etc.,  the  weavers  have  depicted 
designs  that  are  almost  as  geometric  as  those  of  the  Turkoman  rugs 
by  which  they  have  been  influenced;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  large 
numbers  of  the  border  designs  are  distinctly  floral.  In  the  rugs  of 
China  and  Asia  Minor  are  found  both  geometric  and  floral  ornamen- 
tation, the  latter  predominating  in  pieces  woven  during  the  last 
two  centuries,  and  the  former  in  those  of  earlier  date.  Among 


S' 


XX 


9 


Plate  D.  — Prayer  Arches  of  Asia  Minor  Rugs 


Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  Ghiordes.  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  Kulah.  No.  8,  Ladik.  Nos.  9,  10,  Bergamo.  Nos.  11, 
12,  Melez.  No.  13,  Kir-sehehr,  Mudjar.  Nos.  14,  15,  Konieh.  No.  1G,  Anatolian. 

G3 


64 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


the  woven  fabrics  of  India  and  Persia,  however,  few  traces  of  the 
geometric  pattern  remain;  but  vines,  leaves,  and  flowers  form  the 
favourite  theme  for  decoration. 

The  floral  patterns  are  the  result  of  many  centuries  of  growth, 
that  reached  its  highest  development  in  the  Persian  carpets  of  the 
XVI  and  XVII  Centuries;  and  since  then  till  the  present  time  they 
have  continued  as  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  rugs  of 
that  country  and  India.  They  represent  the  highest  technique  of 
the  weaver.  In  the  borders  are  generally  represented  vines  from 
which  are  pendant  rosettes,  palmettes,  or  flowers;  and  in  the  fields, 
particularly  those  of  the  fine  antique  rugs,  are  a profusion  of 
floral  forms  realistically  portrayed.  On  long,  gracefully  twining 
and  intertwining  stems  is  often  the  rose,  pink,  violet,  lotus,  crocus, 
narcissus,  or  daisy.  But  if  the  rug  is  more  modern,  in  its  field  of 
uniform  colour  may  be  represented  a central  medallion  covered 
with  delicate  tracings  enriched  by  bright-coloured  conventionalised 
flowers. 

In  the  general  pattern  of  all  rugs  are  interwoven  particular  de- 
signs or  motives  that  give  them  a distinctive  character  and  render  the 
greatest  assistance  in  distinguishing  the  groups  and  classes.  Thus  the 
serrated  leaf  and  wine  cup  (Plate  I,  Fig.  1,  opp.  Page  226)  is  found 
only  in  Caucasian  and  old  Armenian  rugs;  and  the  design  repre- 
sented in  Plate  H,  Fig.  10  (opp.  Page  194),  suggestive  of  some  Chinese 
character,  is  found  almost  exclusively  in  Kulahs.  Not  only  are  all 
designs  important  as  aids  in  classification,  but  they  have  a special 
interest,  as  it  is  maintained  by  writers  of  the  highest  authority  that 
when  employed  by  the  earliest  weavers  each  had  a symbolic  mean- 
ing. To  be  sure,  the  origin  of  many  has  been  lost  in  the  remote 
past  and  is  unknown  even  to  those  who  now  employ  them;  but 
others  still  represent  definite  ideas,  as  they  did  centuries  ago,  and 
portray  to  some  extent  the  thought  of  the  weaver.  They  therefore 
deserve  the  most  careful  study. 

Few  of  these  designs  have  been  transmitted  from  a more  remote 
past  or  have  been  more  universally  employed  than  has  been  the 
figure  S or  co.  It  appears  in  each  of  the  groups  of  Oriental  rugs  ex- 
cepting the  Chinese;  and  two  of  the  forms  it  assumes  are  exceed- 
ingly like  the  arms  of  the  swastika  and  parts  of  the  fret  as  occasion- 
ally seen  in  Chinese  designs.  In  Indian  rugs  it  is  rarely  found 
except  in  the  borders,  which  may  have  been  copied  from  those  of 
other  countries.  It  is  very  commonly  seen  in  the  Beluchistans, 


Plate  11.  Carpet  from  Northwestern  Persia 


Loaned  by  C.  1.  Williams,  Lsq.,  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 


DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


05 


Tekkes,  and  Beshires,  of  the  Central  Asiatic  group;  and  in  the  rugs  of 
the  Persian  group  that  show  nomadic  influences.  There  is  probably 
not  a single  class  of  the  Caucasian  group,  nor  any  of  the  Asia  Minor 
group,  with  the  exception  of  the  old  Ghiordes,  in  which  it  is  not  some- 
times represented.  It  may  be  seen  near  the  corner  of  the  Asia  Minor 
“Dragon  and  Phoenix”  carpet  of  the  XIV  Century,  illustrated  in 
Plate  20  (opp.  Page  88) ; and  appears  in  some  of  the  old  Armenian 
carpets,  which  are  believed  to  be  even  older.  That  it  was  associated 
with  sun  worship  and  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  light  and  the  deity 
is  the  accepted  belief.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  it  was  intended 
by  some  weavers  to  represent  the  serpent,  which  among  many  differ- 
ent races  is  emblematic  of  superhuman  knowledge. 

Probably  no  other  design  has  been  more  universally  employed 
than  the  swastika,  which  appears  in  the  textile  fabrics  of  North 
American  Indians,  on  the  Maya  ruins  of  Yucatan,  among  the  mon- 
uments of  the  Nile,  and  on  the  temples  of  India.  Widely  as  is  its  dis- 
tribution, its  most  usual  form  of  intersecting  right  angles  is  found 
in  each  of  these  countries.  It  is  not  improbable  that  it  originated 
in  China,  where  it  is  a most  common  decorative  motive,  and  was 
almost  invariably  represented  in  the  borders  and  in  many  of  the 
medallions  of  rugs  woven  before  the  beginning  of  the  XVIII  Century. 
It  is  also  very  frequently  seen  in  the  rugs  of  Samarkand,  and 
occasionally  in  those  of  Caucasia.  It  seldom  appears  in  the  rugs  of 
Persia,  Asia  Minor,  or  Turkestan.  The  universality  of  the  design 
indicates  its  great  antiquity,  yet  its  primitive  symbolic  meaning 
of  abundance,  fertility,  and  prosperity  has  never  been  lost.  Some 
of  its  different  forms  are  shown  in  Plate  O,  Figs.  5a,  5b,  5c,  5d,  5e, 
and  5f  (Page  291). 

The  reciprocal  trefoil  (Plate  F,  Fig.  17,  opp.  Page  158)  is  a very 
usual  design  in  Caucasian  and  Persian  rugs;  it  is  often  found  in  some 
of  the  rugs  of  India  and  in  Beluchistans,  but  is  very  rarely  seen 
in  other  classes  of  the  Central  Asiatic  or  in  the  Chinese  and  Asia 
Minor  groups.  Its  origin  is  uncertain,  but  since  it  appears  in  the 
“ Polish  Carpets  ” and  other  antique  Persian  carpets  of  strictly  floral 
pattern,  where  its  drawing  is  more  elaborate  than  in  modern  rugs, 
it  is  not  improbable  that  it  is  the  conventionalised  form  of  the  lily 
or  a spray  bearing  three  leaves,  and  that  it  has  the  emblematic  sig- 
nificance of  the  tree  form. 

Among  all  primitive  races  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  have  been 
associated  with  their  religion,  so  that  it  is  surprising  that  so  few 


66 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


emblems  of  them  are  recognised  in  rugs.  In  the  theology  of  the 
Chaldees,  from  which  the  earliest  weavers  must  have  received  in- 
spiration, the  sun  was  regarded  as  one  of  their  principal  deities 
and  the  moon  as  another.  The  sun  is  generally  represented  by  a 
plain  circle,  a circle  with  diameters  intersecting  at  right  angles, 
or  a circle  with  small  ovals  intersecting  at  right  angles;  the  moon 
is  represented  by  the  crescent.  Of  much  more  frequent  occurrence 
is  the  eight-pointed  star,  another  inheritance  of  those  ancient  times 
when  all  primitive  races  worshipped  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  repre- 
sented the  female  principle  of  the  Chaldean  sun  god;  and  it  is 
believed,  too,  that  it  represented  the  deity  to  the  Medes,  ancestors 
of  many  of  the  present  Persians.  There  is  a tradition  among  some 
Eastern  races  that  King  Solomon  wore  a ring  of  diamonds  arranged 
in  the  form  of  an  eight-pointed  star,  and  also  a crown  containing 
a large  star  of  which  the  eight  points  and  centre  were  composed  of 
precious  stones  of  different  colour.  A star  now  and  then  seen  in  rugs 
with  colours  so  arranged  is  known  as  “Mohammedan’s  jewel  design.” 
The  six-pointed  star,  a Jewish  symbol  for  the  “shield  of  David,” 
was  adopted  as  a talisman  by  some  of  the  Moslems.  All  of  these 
stars  are  chiefly  nomadic  symbols,  they  rarely  if  ever  are  seen 
in  the  rugs  of  China  or  India,  they  are  only  occasionally  found 
in  those  of  Persia,  and  are  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Cau- 
casian pieces. 

Another  design  is  an  octagonal-shaped  disc  (Plate  O,  Fig.  10, 
Page  291),  usually  about  two  and  a half  inches  in  diameter,  on  the 
face  of  which  and  extending  the  full  width  are  figures  somewhat 
like  hour-glasses  placed  at  right  angles  to  one  another.  It  seems  not 
improbable  that  it  is  of  the  same  origin  as  the  large  designs  that  ap- 
pear in  the  field  of  the  Holbein  rug  of  the  XV  Century,  illustrated  in 
Plate  21  (opp.  Page  92).  It  is  a very  old  motive,  and  is  sometimes 
regarded  as  a dial  symbolising  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth.  It 
is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  nomadic  rugs;  and  is  found  in 
Beluchistans,  in  nearly  all  Caucasians,  in  some  rugs  from  Asia 
Minor,  and  in  only  a very  few  from  Persia. 

The  zigzag  line,  known  as  the  water  motive,  is  found  in  many  of 
the  rugs  of  China,  India,  Persia,  Caucasia,  and  Asia  Minor,  as  well 
as  in  the  Beluchistans  and  Beshires  of  the  Central  Asiatic  group, 
though  in  some  instances  it  appears  as  little  more  than  a serrated 
line.  It  is  represented  in  the  narrow  guard-stripes  of  some  of  the 
Western  Asia  Minor  carpets  of  the  XV  Century.  According  to  Mr. 


COLOUR  PLATE  III  — MOSUL  RUG 


Long  before  the  commercial  instinct  had  been  felt  among  the  weavers 
of  the  Orient,  one  or  more  of  them  dwelling  in  the  Mesopotamian  valley 
tied  the  knots  of  this  old  Mosul.  The  central  field  is  of  camel’s  hair 
that  shades  from  a rich  dark  chestnut  at  one  end  to  lighter  tones  at  the 
other,  and  is  enlivened  by  bright  flowers  representing  those  found  on 
the  river  s banks.  This  variation  of  ground  colour,  the  small  geometric 
designs  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  fields,  the  eight-pointed  stars  of  the 
main  stripe  of  the  border,  and  some  of  the  drawing  are  nomadic  char- 
acteristics. The  dainty  vine  and  flower  of  the  narrow  guard  stripes, 
on  the  other  hand,  show  Persian  influence.  This  piece  represents  a 
type  of  which  few  now  remain. 


Property  of  the  Author 


£>\M  III  STk'kl  S.VH1I00  ’ 

vmjms  sAi  ^«o-s«o  &\  «sa4  koA  tomtesw  \om»o  , syo\s>6  \rnoA. 
\saUsyv  «oVw»-Voq^o%atlL  $M  tit  §m\bmb  mAs  \o  to  &wo  SAI  \o 

•vmA  a'larou')  \o  ?.’v  bh'A;  $AT  .iw%cl£  fe\o  %$#&  \o  v.Isq^A  ^ imi 

sAS  ii>  ■s.amA  o\  Ym&  avw  $.»  m-ntaufo  &v»b  Aon  » «w\  so&MwVa  J»Ai 

•.to  imwo\  osoAS  ^mYtamo’w^  &rnro^  xmVnd  \$4  Y>o.vmY\j\o  %V  5m®:  ,*soA$o- 
ontenoo^  oAi  ,wo5oo  bjwoY\>  \o  «oYi»jra><s  sYAT  .%Ast»A  %ko<m:  oAS 

osVs  \o  va»?s?.  baittYoq4A\jfo  oAS  <?Mos\  jA\  \o  ?,bm  swyfliis  oAA  S» 

~mAo  oYfosmtost  oAS  \o  owvo?.  5»A»  <t$!bfoA  oA\  \o  oc^nto  fvYmw 

t%oc£*nte  Yram\>  ostvnmv  oAi  \o  iw\  bsvn  MtVi  \§&m&  oAT  .fcoYtemioa 
d sisnmqot  oooYq;  v.'vAT  .oojtowJkvv  svttmo4!  cttoAa  /smaA  *voAio  oA$  m> 

.ttHvtm  mm  or«\  AoYAiw  \o 

TOi^wk  v\\  \o 


DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


67 


John  Mumford,  “even  in  the  oldest  Egyptian  symbolism  a zigzag 
line  stood  for  water  and  by  implication  for  eternity;  and  a succes- 
sion of  these  arranged  to  represent  the  sea  has  long  been  a recog- 
nised carpet  design  in  India,  China,  and  Persia.” 

One  of  the  most  common  designs  is  what  has  been  called  the 
“ latch-hook.”  When  there  is  a long  succession  of  latch-hooks  with  the 
straight  ends  resting  on  a line  and  the  hooked  ends  inclined  in  the 
same  direction,  as  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  20  (opp.  Page  230),  they  are  called 
“running  latch-hooks.”  Since  they  appear  in  the  Dragon  and  Phoenix 
rug  (opp.  Page  88),  that  was  probably  woven  about  the  end  of  the 
XIV  Century,  they  are  evidently  a very  old  design,  which  not  improb- 
ably was  derived  from  the  Chinese  fret.  The  hook  is  of  different 
shapes,  and  is  sometimes  perpendicular,  sometimes  inclined.  Its 
particular  function  is  to  shade  or  subdue  the  harsh  effect  of  a sudden 
transition  from  one  colour  to  another  that  is  entirely  different.  As 
such  a device  is  unnecessary  in  artistic  rugs  of  intricate  designs,  it  is 
rarely  seen  in  any  Indian  or  Persian  piece,  excepting  the  modern 
Shiraz  that  frequently  adopts  geometric  patterns;  but  it  is  found 
in  all  the  rugs  of  Caucasia,  Central  Asia,  and  in  most  of  those 
of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  in  fact  as  universal  as  the  reciprocal  trefoil. 

In  rugs  of  geometric  patterns  are  occasionally  found  both  Greek 
and  Roman  crosses.  The  latter  are  represented  in  most  of  the 
Soumak  rugs,  and  appear  profusely  in  old  Asia  Minor  or  Armenian 
rugs,  in  which  they  were  probably  woven  with  the  intent  to  convey 
a religious  significance;  but  in  many  instances  crosses  are  not  used 
symbolically. 

The  design  of  a comb  (Plate  O,  Fig.  11,  Page  291)  is  a Moham- 
medan emblem  suggestive  of  cleanliness,  yet  it  is  not  improbable 
that  it  is  sometimes  intended  to  represent  the  instrument  employed 
in  pressing  the  threads  of  weft  closely  against  the  knots.  It  is 
found  mostly  in  Caucasian  rugs,  and  rarely  in  those  of  other 
groups. 

In  a large  number  of  the  finest  carpets  woven  in  Persia  three 
or  four  centuries  ago  was  represented  what  is  known  as  the  Chinese 
cloud-band  (Plate  O,  Fig.  7).  It  appeared  in  Persia  about  the  middle 
of  the  XV  Century,  and  was  conspicuous  in  the  carpets  of  Herat, 
Tabriz,  and  Gilan,  as  well  as  in  many  of  the  “Polish  Carpets.” 
Later  it  was  introduced  into  Asia  Minor,  but  was  never  represented 
in  any  of  the  strictly  nomadic  weavings.  It  appears  in  only  a very 
few  of  the  modern  rugs,  and  these  are  mostly  Persian.  Nor  is  it 


68 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


recognised  in  its  usual  form  in  any  of  tlie  Chinese  rugs  that  now 
exist;  though  without  a doubt  it  originated  with  the  Chinese, 
since  their  early  mythology  placed  the  abode  of  the  Supreme  Ruler 
in  the  Constellation  of  Ursa  Major,  of  which  the  stars  of  the  Big 
Dipper  were  represented  in  early  art  as  enveloped  in  a band  of 
clouds;  but  in  more  conventionalised  ornamentation  the  stars  are 
omitted  and  the  band  remains.  As  a motive,  then,  it  is  symbolic 
of  heaven  and  the  deity. 

In  almost  all  rugs  are  found  expressions  of  vegetable  life,  as  a 
twig,  vine,  flower,  or  tree.  Sometimes  they  are  most  naturalistic, 
again  they  are  partly  conventionalised,  or  so  disguised,  as  in  nomadic 
rugs  of  geometric  designs,  that  only  by  study  and  comparison  of 
many  forms  in  a series  can  their  origin  be  established.  This  universal 
adoption  of  floral  form  was  due  to  something  more  than  an  esthetic 
love  for  the  beautiful,  since  in  every  country  of  the  East  some  part 
of  the  tree  or  plant  was  emblematic.  Moreover,  a tree  form  known 
as  the  Tree  of  Life  had  a religious  significance  among  many  races. 
The  Jews  were  told  that  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  grew  the  “Tree  of 
Knowledge  of  Good  and  Evil;”  and  in  the  Book  of  Revelation 
the  Apostle  John  speaks  of  “The  Tree  of  Life  which  bore  twelve 
manner  of  fruits  and  yielded  her  fruit  every  month,  and  the  leaves 
of  the  tree  were  for  the  healing  of  the  nations.”  From  this  pas- 
sage may  have  been  borrowed  the  belief  of  the  Mohammedans  in  the 
Tree  of  Life  which  grew  in  Paradise,  and  spread  its  branches  that 
true  believers  might  rest  beneath  them  and  enjoy  its  fruits  and 
the  companionship  of  beautiful  houri.  In  the  ancient  lore  of  China 
is  the  Taoist  tradition  of  the  Tree  of  Life,  growing  by  the  Sea  of 
Jade,  that  confers  immortality  on  the  fortunate  who  may  gather 
and  eat  its  fruits;  also  the  tradition  of  the  mountain  top  where 
grows  the  sacred  tree  on  which  the  elect  may  climb  and  mount  to 
heaven.  Even  among  the  ancient  Chaldees  was  a story  of  a tree 
that  grew  to  heaven  and  sheltered  the  earth.  In  different  countries 
the  Tree  of  Life  is  represented  by  different  kinds;  in  Yarkand  of 
Eastern  Turkestan  it  takes  the  form  of  a cedar;  in  Persia  it  is  gen- 
erally the  cypress.  Wherever  employed  it  is  symbolic  of  knowledge, 
resurrection,  immortality. 

No  other  form  of  vegetable  life  was  so  universally  employed 
in  Oriental  symbolism  as  the  lotus  flower  (Plate  O,  Figs.  16a,  b, 
and  c),  since  the  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Indian,  Chinese,  and  Persian 
alike  did  it  reverence.  It  was,  perhaps,  first  employed  emblemati- 


Plate  12.  Carpet  from  Northwestern  Persia 
Loaned  by  C.  F.  Williams,  Esq.,  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 


DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


69 


cally  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  but  later  it  was  held  in  high  esteem 
by  the  inhabitants  of  India  where  the  floating  blossom  is  regarded 
as  an  emblem  of  the  world.  It  was  inseparately  associated  with 
Buddha,  and  its  religious  significance  must  have  extended  with  the 
spread  of  Buddhism.  Professor  Goodyear  regards  a large  number 
of  designs  that  apparently  are  not  related  in  form  as  derived  from 
it  through  a long  series  of  evolutions.  During  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  the  textile  art  in  Persia  it  appears  most  realistically  drawn 
in  a large  number  of  the  carpets,  especially  the  so-called  Ispahans, 
or  Ilerats,  and  the  so-called  Polish.  It  is  also  most  artistically 
represented  in  the  fabrics  of  India,  and  is  a favourite  design  for 
Chinese  weavers.  But  in  other  modern  rugs  it  is  seldom  used  as  a 
motive,  and  is  so  conventionalised  as  often  to  escape  notice. 

If  the  lotus  was  the  first  flower  to  be  represented  in  early  woven 
fabrics,  as  seems  not  improbable,  several  others  have  met  with 
greater  favour  among  modern  weavers.  Of  these  the  rose,  which  is 
cultivated  extensively  in  the  gardens  of  the  East,  appears  in  a large 
number  of  the  rugs  of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor.  Moreover,  a pattern 
frequently  seen  in  many  old  Persian  rugs  is  an  all-over  pattern  of 
small  bushes  with  flowering  roses.  Almost  equally  popular  is  the 
lily,  which  is  characteristic  of  many  of  the  rugs  of  India  and  of  a 
few  of  Western  Asia  Minor.  The  “Euphrates  flower,”  which  grows 
by  the  river  banks  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley,  is  also  occasionally 
found  as  an  all-over  pattern  in  some  of  the  rugs  of  Western  Iran  and 
Southern  Caucasia.  Less  frequently  seen  and  still  less  frequently 
recognised,  as  they  are  generally  woven  in  small  figures,  are  the 
daisy,  anemone,  crocus,  narcissus,  pink,  and  violet.  All  are  depicted 
chiefly  on  account  of  their  associations  and  beauty,  and  whatever 
emblematic  meaning  they  are  intended  to  convey  is  generally  no 
more  than  that  of  their  colours.  There  are,  however,  in  a few  old 
Persian  carpets  designs  of  sunflowers,  which  were  accepted  by  the 
Zoroastrians  and  the  earlier  sun  and  fire  worshippers  as  symbols 
of  the  sun  and  emblems  of  light. 

Of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  none  is  more  highly  esteemed  than  the 
pomegranate,  which  was  sculptured  in  temples  of  Mesopotamia 
and  embroidered  on  the  robes  of  Assyrian  and  Jewish  priests.  In 
the  days  of  King  Solomon  it  was  cultivated  in  Palestine,  where  the 
Israelites,  like  modern  Persians,  made  a sherbet  by  mixing  its  juice 
with  sugar  and  spices.  At  the  time  of  Homer  it  was  cultivated  in 
Phrygia.  Now  it  grows  wild  over  vast  tracts  of  Syria,  Persia,  and  Asia 


70 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Minor.  Yet  it  rarely  appears  conspicuously  in  any  woven  fabrics 
excepting  the  Ladik  prayer  rugs,  in  which  it  is  invariably  seen.  Since 
the  weavers  of  these,  whether  Christian  or  Moslem,  would  probably 
be  familiar  with  many  of  the  old  Jewish  and  Assyrian  rites,  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  it  refers  emblematically  to  its  religious  associations 
rather  than  symbolises,  as  has  been  suggested,  the  idea  of  fruitful- 
ness as  expressed  in  the  Turkish  wedding  custom  where  the  bride 
throws  a pomegranate  at  her  feet  that  the  scattered  seed  may  fore- 
tell the  number  of  her  children. 

In  almost  every  rug  of  Persia,  India,  and  Asia  Minor  there  is 
in  some  part  of  the  border  a vine  with  pendant  leaves,  flowers, 
rosettes,  or  palmettes ; and  even  in  many  Caucasian  rugs  of  geometric 
pattern  the  vine  with  its  appendages  is  seen  in  conventionalised 
form.  In  a few  of  the  more  sumptuous  carpets,  where  the  draw- 
ing is  elaborate,  delicate  tendrils  bearing  flowers  or  the  more  formal 
designs  of  the  Herati  border  take  the  place  of  the  vine,  from  which 
they  were  evolved.  In  such  borders  the  designs  generally  convey 
no  symbolic  meaning,  but  the  simpler  vine  encircling  the  field 
without  beginning  or  end  represents  symbolically  the  continuity 
of  purpose  and  permanency. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  designs  (Plate  O,  Fig.  6,  Page  291)  is 
known  as  the  Cone,  Palm,  Mango,  Almond,  River  Loop,  and  Pear. 
By  some  it  is  believed  to  represent  no  more  than  the  closed  palm  of 
the  hand,  since  there  is  an  old  tradition  in  Persia  that  a weaver 
once  asked  his  little  son  to  devise  for  him  a new  design,  whereupon 
the  boy  thrust  his  hand  into  a pot  of  dye,  then  placed  it  sidewise 
upon  a piece  of  white  linen,  on  which  became  impressed  the  “palm” 
design  formed  by  the  hand  and  incurving  small  finger.  By  some  it 
is  regarded  as  a cluster  of  old  Iranian  crown  jewels.  To  others,  who 
point  to  the  well-known  pattern  of  the  Kashmir  weaving,  it  denotes 
the  bend  of  the  river  Jhelum  above  Srinagar  in  the  valley  of  Kash- 
mir; and  to  Sir  George  Birdwood  it  symbolises  the  flame  sacred 
to  ancient  fire  worshippers.  In  this  work  it  will  be  called  the  Pear, 
the  name  now  generally  applied  to  it.  In  the  course  of  the  many 
centuries  that  have  elapsed  since  its  origin,  and  in  its  migration 
through  India,  Persia,  Turkestan,  Caucasia,  and  Asia  Minor,  it  has 
adopted  more  strange  shapes  than  any  other  device.  In  the  rugs 
of  Sarabend  it  is  represented  in  its  best-known  form  of  simple  curv- 
ing lines,  in  the  Bakus  its  identity  is  almost  lost  on  account  of  its 
geometric  appearance,  and  in  the  fabrics  of  India  it  is  often  very 


Plate  L‘3.  Compartment  Carpet  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 

New  York 


I 


DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


71 


ornate.  Though  its  origin  is  hidden  in  the  mists  of  the  past,  when 
its  antiquity  is  considered,  and  also  the  devotion  of  the  early  races 
to  the  glowing  orb  of  the  sun  and  to  terrestrial  fires,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  it  has  been  regarded  as  a relic  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith 
of  old  Iran,  symbolising  the  eternal  flames  before  which  the  Parsees 
worshipped. 

If  the  floral  designs  are  more  beautiful,  others  are  more  truly 
symbolic,  and  when  appearing  in  rugs  of  barbaric  patterns  they 
are  more  interesting.  Of  these  the  creeping  things  are  represented 
by  the  serpent,  scorpion,  turtle,  crab,  and  tarantula.  Among  a 
few  races  of  Asia  the  serpent,  which  is  found  in  a few  old  Persian 
carpets,  has  been  regarded  as  emblematic  of  immortality,  but  has 
been  more  frequently  considered  as  the  symbol  of  knowledge. 
The  scorpion,  also,  was  supposed  to  represent  the  idea  of  knowledge. 
It  does  not  often  appear  in  woven  design,  but  is  sometimes  drawn 
with  careful  precision  in  Caucasian  fabrics.  The  turtle  or  tortoise 
stands  for  constancy.  What  is  called  the  “ turtle  border  ” (Plate  E, 
Fig.  3,  opp.  Page  156),  which  was  probably  derived  from  interlacing 
arabesques,  occurs  most  frequently  in  Feraghans  and  also  in  some 
other  Persian  rugs,  as  Muskabads,  Sarabends,  Serapis,  and  even  the 
Sehnas.  The  tarantula  and  crab  designs  are  found  exclusively  in 
borders  of  Caucasian  rugs.  As  their  resemblance  to  the  animals 
they  are  supposed  to  represent  is  remote,  it  is  most  probable  that 
they  are  simply  the  conventionalised  forms  of  the  star  and  palmette. 

Among  the  designs  seen  in  Chinese  rugs  are  several  not  found 
in  any  others.  Of  these  the  dragon,  originally  intended  as  a symbol 
of  the  infinite,  denotes  imperial  power;  the  stork,  long  life;  the  duck, 
conjugal  felicity;  the  bat,  happiness;  and  the  butterfly,  a spirit. 
These  designs  will  be  noticed  in  the  chapter  on  Chinese  rugs. 

With  few  exceptions  the  only  modern  rugs  in  which  birds  are 
represented  are  the  Persian.  The  drawing  as  a rule  is  far  from 
natural;  but  in  the  fine  old  carpets  it  is  often  so  accurate  as  to  show 
unmistakably  the  order  to  which  they  belong.  Several  of  them  were 
used  symbolically,  as  the  bird  of  paradise,  suggestive  of  felicity; 
the  peacock,  symbol  of  fire;  the  eagle,  emblem  of  power.  The  atti- 
tude, to  be  sure,  in  which  they  appear,  affects  in  a measure  their 
symbolic  meaning;  as  an  eagle  in  flight  denotes  good  fortune,  but 
one  in  the  act  of  descending  denotes  ill  luck. 

As  the  Mohammedan  religion  interdicts  portraying  birds  and 
beasts  as  well  as  human  forms,  they  are  rarely  seen  in  any  rug  of 


72 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Western  Asia  Minor,  which  is  inhabited  by  the  Sunnites,  the  strict 
conformists  to  the  law  of  the  Koran;  but  in  Mohammedan  countries 
lying  farther  to  the  east,  where  the  Shiites  or  nonconformists  live, 
animal  designs  are  very  common.  In  modern  rugs  of  Persia  and  Cau- 
casia, dogs,  goats,  and  camels  are  the  most  popular  animal  sub- 
jects, but  the  drawing  is  often  so  poor  that  the  identity  is  in  doubt. 
In  the  old  carpets,  on  the  other  hand,  animals  and  human  beings 
were  most  realistically  drawn,  and  were  intended  to  represent  sym- 
bolically the  weaver’s  thought.  In  fact,  those  masterpieces  of  Per- 
sian art  known  as  the  “Hunting  Carpets”  would  lose  much  of  their 
interest  if  their  many  forms  of  animal  life  were  without  symbolic 
meaning.  In  them  the  lion  is  a symbol  of  victory,  power,  the  sun, 
and  the  day;  the  antelope  and  unicorn  are  symbols  of  restfulness 
and  the  moon.  The  lion  destroying  an  antelope  would  mean,  then, 
the  victory  of  day  over  night,  or  of  a powerful  over  a weak  foe. 
Leopards  and  hounds  likewise  symbolise  success  and  fame.  There 
are  also  mythological  creatures,  as  the  phoenix,  emblematic  of  life 
and  resurrection,  and  the  winged  djinni  or  Persian  spirits,  that  often 
adorn  the  fields  and  borders  of  some  of  the  elaborate  antique  carpets 
of  Iran. 

Not  only  the  forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  and  their  rela- 
tive attitudes  to  one  another  were  intended  to  convey  a symbolic 
meaning,  but  among  almost  all  ancient  races  colours  had  a special 
significance.  To  the  Moslems  no  colour  was  more  sacred  than  the 
green,  which,  though  difficult  to  produce  in  beautiful  tones,  they 
have  placed  in  the  fields  of  many  of  their  prayer  rugs.  To  them, 
also,  blue  was  the  emblem  of  eternity,  and  in  the  spandrels  above 
the  arches  it  was  the  symbol  of  the  sky.  Though  to  the  Hindoo 
it  denotes  ill  luck,  it  was  the  chosen  colour  of  the  Persians,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  imperial  colours  of  the  Chinese.  Among  all  nations 
yellow,  another  imperial  colour  of  China,  and  red  are  suggestive  of 
joy  and  happiness.  Such  colours,  when  used  in  conjunction  with 
other  emblems,  expressed  not  only  beauty,  but  also  different  shades 
of  thought. 

These  are  but  a few  of  the  many  motives  that  are  employed  by 
the  weaver.  Some  of  them  represent  objects  intimately  associated 
with  his  daily  life.  Some  of  them  reflect  his  thoughts  and  emo- 
tions. Others  are  the  still  unsolved  hieroglyphics  of  his  craft. 
When,  then,  we  examine  some  old  worn  rug,  we  may  see  only  an 
exquisite  pattern  resplendent  in  the  deep  rich  colours  of  an  art 


Plate  14.  Persian  Animal  Carpet  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  New  York 


DESIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS 


73 


now  lost;  but  if  to  an  aesthetic  taste  be  added  an  interest  in  a 
symbolism  that  expresses  something  of  the  thought  and  life  of  the 
weaver,  we  may  find  in  the  study  of  the  various  designs  another 
charm  that  increases  with  the  discovery  of  any  previously  hidden 
meaning. 


CHAPTER  VII 

RUG  WEAVING  BEFORE  THE  XVIII  CENTURY 


JHERE  are  no  records  to  definitely  indicate 
in  what  land  the  art  of  rug  weaving  origi- 
nated, or  to  disprove  that  it  developed  in- 
dependently in  different  lands.  It  would 
be  unreasonable,  then,  to  assume  that  rugs 
were  not  woven  in  northern  regions  as  early 
as  in  southern.  In  fact,  during  the  Neo- 
lithic age  the  Lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland 
grew  and  spun  flax,  and  it  is  believed  that  they  had  looms.  More- 
over, it  is  probable  that  the  savages  of  cold  climates  soon  learned 
to  weave  garments  with  the  long  wool  of  their  sheep  or  goats;  and 
the  similar  process  of  weaving  mats  for  the  floors  of  their  huts 
would  naturally  follow.  Nevertheless,  such  evidence  as  now  re- 
mains points  to  the  civilisations  of  the  Euphrates  or  the  Nile,  as 
the  birthplace  of  this  art. 

Though  we  do  not  know  when  the  first  rugs  were  made,  without 
a doubt  they  existed  before  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  or  the  palaces 
of  Babylon  had  risen  from  the  plains.  Among  the  rock-cut  tombs 
of  Beni-Hassan  in  Egypt,  that  date  from  about  2500  b.  c.  are 
pictures  of  men  with  spindles,  of  looms  and  weavers.  There  is 
also  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  a high  state  of  the 
textile  art  among  the  ruins  in  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates.  On  carved  walls  of  the  palaces  of  Nineveh,  where 
dwelt  the  rulers  of  Assyria  over  three  thousand  years  ago,  are  elab- 
orate drawings  indicating  that  carpets  of  remarkable  workmanship 
were  then  in  use.  In  the  borders  of  some  of  the  robes  worn  by  the 
rulers  are  designs  of  rosettes  and  latch-hooks,  and  on  one  is  de- 
picted the  tree  of  life,  similar  to  what  may  be  seen  in  modern  rugs. 
Nor  are  ancient  writers  silent.  In  the  Old  Testament  are  frequent 
references  to  woven  fabrics.  Homer,  also,  speaks  of  them  in  his 
Odyssey.  Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Pliny,  Strabo,  in  fact  almost  all 
classic  writers  have  mentioned  them.  Moreover,  designs  on  pot- 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


75 


tery,  bowls,  tiles,  and  walls,  similar  in  appearance  to  those  found  in 
the  oldest  existing  carpets,  carry  contributory  evidence  to  their 
antiquity  and  character. 

This  art,  that  necessity  created,  comfort  nourished,  and  luxury 
matured,  has  been  a process  of  slow  development.  To  the  mind  of 
some  dark  tribeswoman  of  the  desert  contemplating  the  rushes 
gathered  from  a sluggish  stream  and  strewn  upon  the  floor  of  her 
master’s  hut  several  thousand  years  ago,  may  have  been  suggested 
the  first  idea  of  a mat.  Indeed,  from  earliest  times  mats  of  reeds, 
straw,  bamboo,  or  other  pliable  material  have  been  constantly  made. 
At  first  they  were  doubtless  without  ornament;  later  they  were 
coloured  with  dyes  obtained  from  roots  and  herbs  to  increase  their 
attractiveness;  finally  designs  symbolic  of  nature  or  the  deity  were 
embroidered  on  them.  As  wealth  and  luxury  increased  the  orna- 
mentation became  more  elaborate,  until  during  the  rule  of  the  Ca- 
liphs the  mats  rivalled  in  beauty  the  carpets  for  which,  during  the 
summer  months,  they  were  substituted.  “On  these  mats,”  wrote 
the  eminent  authority,  Dr.  F.  R.  Martin,  “the  artist  found  free 
scope  for  displaying  as  much  artistic  skill  as  on  the  real  carpets, 
and  gold  threads  were  intertwined  to  make  them  as  precious  as  the 
most  expensive  silk  and  gold  carpets.”  Long,  however,  before 
they  had  reached  such  a high  state  of  perfection,  they  would  have 
suggested  the  idea  of  making  warmer  and  more  durable  floor  cov- 
erings. The  first  of  these  was  a simple  web  of  warp  and  woof; 
later  they  assumed  a character  not  dissimilar  to  the  kilims  now 
made  in  the  lands  of  their  origin.  With  further  advance,  more 
elaborate  carpets  and  tapestries  were  made;  but  it  was  not  until  the 
art  had  been  developing  for  a great  many  centuries,  that  there  ap- 
peared those  most  perfect  products  of  knotted  pile  that  were  similar 
in  kind  but  superior  in  quality  to  the  modern  pieces. 

Slow  as  was  this  development,  as  early  as  the  Christian  era,  the 
work  of  the  most  skilled  weavers  of  the  Orient  deserved  to  be  classed 
as  a fine  art.  During  the  time  of  the  Sassanian  kingdom  (extending 
from  about  226  a.  d.  to  632  a.  d.)  carpets  of  elaborate  design  and 
finish  were  produced  in  Mesopotamia  and  Syria.  Most  of  them 
were  of  the  wool  of  sheep  or  goats;  and  in  them  were  represented 
designs  of  trees,  birds,  animals,  and  other  figures.  Other  pieces 
were  made  of  silk  richly  embroidered  with  silver  and  gold.  More- 
over, authentic  evidence  from  the  VI  Century  a.  d.  not  only  gives 
us  positive  knowledge  of  the  marvellous  workmanship  of  that  time. 


76 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


but  enables  us  to  conjecture  through  what  a long  period  of  progres- 
sion the  artisans  had  been  labouring  to  arrive  at  such  results.  Dr. 
Karabacek,  director  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,  in  his  mono- 
graph “Die  Persische  Nadelmalerei  Susandschird,”  gave  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  “Spring  of  Chosroes”  carpet: 

“When  Ctesiphon,  the  residence  of  the  Sassanides,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Arabs  in  the  year  637  a.  d.,  they  found  in  the  royal 
palace,  the  ruins  of  which  still  remain,  a colossal  carpet  of  1051 
square  metres,*  which  was  originally  made  for  Chosroes  I.  His 
successor,  Anoschar  (531-579  a.  d.),  used  it  also,  but  only  during 
the  stormy  weather,  when  remaining  in  the  gardens  was  impracti- 
cable. The  festivities  were  then  transferred  to  the  palace,  where  a 
garden  with  the  beauty  of  springtime  was  represented  by  the  pat- 
tern of  the  carpet.  This  was  the  Winter  Carpet  that  was  called 
in  Persia  the  Spring  of  Chosroes.  Its  material,  which  was  marvel- 
lous and  costly,  consisted  of  silk,  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones. 
On  it  was  represented  a beautiful  pleasure  ground  with  brooks  and 
interlacing  paths,  with  trees  and  flowers  of  springtime.  On  the 
wide  borders  surrounding  it  were  represented  flower-beds  in  which 
precious  stones  coloured  blue,  red,  yellow,  white,  and  green  denoted 
the  beauty  of  the  flowers.  Gold  imitated  the  yellow-coloured  soil 
and  defined  the  borders  of  the  brooks,  where  the  water  was  repre- 
sented by  crystals.  Gravel  paths  were  indicated  by  stones  of  the 
size  of  pearls.  The  stalks  of  trees  were  of  gold  and  silver,  the  leaves 
and  flowers  of  silk,  the  fruits  of  many-coloured  stones.” 

As  the  value  of  this  carpet  was  estimated  at  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a million  dollars,  it  was  regarded  as  too  precious  to  fall  to  the 
lot  of  a single  captor,  and  was  accordingly  divided  into  segments 
to  be  distributed  as  booty  among  the  soldiers.  Even  if  during  this 
period  there  was  no  other  fabric  so  valuable  and  elaborate,  it  repre- 
sented the  importance  of  the  textile  art  during  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassanides. 

During  the  Caliphate  (632  to  1258  a.  d.)  the  Moslem  rulers, 
devoted  to  luxury,  preserved  the  art  treasures  of  their  conquered 
subjects  and  encouraged  them  to  renewed  efforts.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  the  Caliphs  and  sultans  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  A carpet 
that  adorned  the  banquet  hall  of  the  Caliph  Ilisham  of  Egypt,  who 
died  743  A.  d.,  was  of  silk  interwoven  with  strands  of  gold,  and  had 
a length  of  three  hundred  feet  and  a breadth  of  one  hundred  and 
* The  equivalent  of  106  feet  square. 


Persian  Animal  Carpet  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 
New  York 


Plate  1.5. 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


77 


fifty  feet.  All  of  the  rooms  of  the  Egyptian  palaces,  occupied  by 
the  sultans,  contained  carpets  of  silk  and  satin;  and  the  mosques 
of  Syria  were  similarly  furnished.  In  the  year  1067  a.d.  one  of 
the  Caliphs  was  forced  to  sell  his  accumulated  treasures,  which  con- 
sisted, besides  jewels  and  works  of  art,  of  about  four  thousand  bales 
of  carpets.  Dr.  Martin  states  that  a single  one  of  these  bales  con- 
tained several  hundred  perfect  carpets,  which  were  woven  in  silk 
and  gold,  and  that  some  of  them  contained  portraits  of  entire  royal 
families.  One  of  them,  valued  at  about  $300,000,  was  made  for  the 
Caliph  el  Mirz  li  alia  in  the  year  964  a.  d.  It  was  of  blue  silk,  on 
which  were  represented  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  seas  and  rivers, 
as  well  as  the  holy  cities  Mecca  and  Medina.  Such  was  the  char- 
acter of  some  of  the  carpets  woven  during  the  days  of  the  Caliphs. 

As  the  imperfect  records  which  have  been  left  us  indicate  that 
the  finest  carpet  collections  of  this  period  were  in  the  mosques  and 
palaces  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  it  has  been  assumed  that  they  were 
woven  by  the  native  artisans.  To  some  extent  this  is  doubtless 
true,  as  rug  weaving  was  one  of  the  oldest  industries  of  these  coun- 
tries. But  it  is  more  probable  that  most  of  them  were  made  else- 
where and  were  acquired  as  presents  or  by  purchase.  Some  were 
made  in  Armenia,  Assyria,  and  Turkestan;  but  the  largest  number, 
as  well  as  the  most  costly  and  elaborate,  doubtless  came  from  the 
same  hills  and  towns  of  Persia  where  many  of  the  finest  pieces  are 
woven  to-day.  In  several  of  these  towns  as  many  as  three  or  four 
hundred  looms  were  constantly  at  work;  and  since  the  carpets  con- 
sisted of  warp  and  weft  only,  it  is  probable  that  they  were  produced 
far  more  rapidly  than  modern  rugs  in  which  knots  are  tied  to  the 
warp.  But  if  they  lacked  the  richness  of  deep,  heavy  pile,  they 
were  elaborately  woven  with  threads  of  gold  and  silver,  and  were 
often  embellished  with  precious  stones. 

ANTIQUE  PERSIAN  CARPETS 

To  the  tendency  of  overestimating  the  age  of  art  objects  to 
which  antiquity  adds  value,  there  is  no  exception  in  the  case  of 
Oriental  rugs,  yet  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  a few  pieces 
still  exist  that  were  woven  in  Persia  as  early  as  the  XIII  or  XIV 
Century.  Indeed,  we  cannot  positively  affirm  that  there  may  not 
be  religiously  preserved  some  relic  of  the  Seljukian  dynasty,  which 
ruled  in  Persia  till  about  1150  a.d.,  for  we  have  little  knowl- 


78 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


edge  of  what  some  of  the  old  mosques  which  no  Christian  has  ever 
entered  may  contain ; but  it  is  more  probable  that  the  oldest  remain- 
ing pieces  belong  to  the  Mongolian  period,  which  began  with  the 
invasion  of  the  armies  of  Genghis  Khan  in  the  first  half  of  the  XIII 
Century.  This  conclusion  is  based  partly  on  the  facts  that  their 
archaic  patterns  indicate  a very  remote  period,  and  that  they  sug- 
gest early  Mongolian  influences.  Moreover,  as  the  age  of  rugs  of  a 
somewhat  later  period  can  be  determined  by  the  evidence  of  simi- 
larity of  their  designs  with  those  of  early  tiles,  metal  work,  pottery, 
and  miniatures,  of  established  age,  it  is  possible  to  infer  the  relative 
age  of  these  older  pieces  by  comparison  of  patterns  showing  a pro- 
gressive development. 

One  of  the  oldest  Persian  pieces  now  existing,  the  property  of 
C.  F.  Williams,  Esq.,  of  Norristown,  Pa.,  is  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  of  New  York  (Plate  ll,opp.  Page  64).  It  is  also  one 
of  the  most  interesting.  In  it  are  found  Persian,  Armenian,  Cauca- 
sian, and  Mongolian  characteristics,  which  serve  to  determine  the 
district  where  it  was  woven  and  to  suggest  its  age.  Its  Sehna  knot, 
cotton  warp  and  weft,  as  well  as  much  of  the  drawing,  are  typical 
of  Persia.  The  tri-cleft  leaf  and  stem  seen  in  the  two  lower  corners, 
in  the  main  stripe,  and  in  parts  of  the  field  are  found  in  almost 
all  Armenian  rugs.  The  reciprocal  sawtooth  of  the  outer  border 
stripe  and  the  geometric  inner  stripe  are  Caucasian  features.  Cer- 
tain colour  tones,  the  octagonal  discs  at  each  end  of  the  large  central 
palmettes,  and  more  particularly  the  tendrils  or  scrolls  of  the  main 
stripe  of  the  border  which  resemble  the  foliate  forms  as  they  appear 
in  Chinese  rugs  and  porcelains  of  the  late  Ming  and  Kang-hi  periods, 
are  Mongolian.  The  combination  of  these  characteristics  indicates 
that  it  was  made  in  the  most  northwesterly  part  of  Persia  where  in 
1258  Hulaku  Khan  established  his  capital,  and  his  successors  ruled 
for  over  a century.  Here  undoubtedly  the  craft  of  weaving  flour- 
ished for  a long  period,  and  exercised  an  important  influence  on  the 
surrounding  countries.  To  judge  by  the  colours;  the  formal  char- 
acter of  the  border;  the  rigid  lines  of  the  large  palmette  motives 
of  the  field,  which  are  not  seen  in  carpets  of  a much  later  period;  and 
the  stiff,  archaic  character  of  the  bushes  with  foliage  and  blossoms 
arranged  mechanically  on  the  thick  trunks,  it  is  not  unreasonable 
to  place  this  piece  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  XIV  Century,  dur- 
ing the  interval  between  the  overthrow  of  the  Seljukian  dynasty 
by  the  followers  of  Genghis  Khan  and  the  later  invasion  of  the 


Plate  16.  Persian  Animal  Carpet  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 

New  York 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


79 


Timurids.  In  fact,  it  may  be  even  older,  since  those  graceful  lines 
that  belong  to  the  highest  art  of  a subsequent  period  are  entirely 
lacking.  But  in  the  drawing  is  strength,  and  in  the  colours,  a few 
of  which  have  faded,  are  beauty  and  harmony. 

Such  old  pieces  are  very  rare,  yet  a similar  one,  belonging  to 
Prof.  W.  Bode,  is  in  the  Kaiser  Friedrich  Museum  at  Berlin.  Its 
drawing  is  more  regular,  and  the  trunks  of  the  trees  are  broader. 
These  two  carpets  represent  the  art  of  weaving  at  a very  early 
period. 

Of  equal  interest  and  higher  artistic  merit  is  another  carpet  (Plate 
12,  opp.  Page  68),  belonging  to  C.  F.  Williams,  Esq.,  and  at  present 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  but  formerly  in  the  possession 
of  J.  Bolder  of  Munich.  It  has  a length  of  nearly  seventeen  feet 
and  a breadth  of  nearly  twelve.  There  are  about  three  hundred 
knots  to  the  square  inch.  Though  much  of  that  stiffness  of  drawl- 
ing found  in  the  earlier  pieces  remains,  the  more  pliant  branches 
and  less  regular  setting  of  the  flowers  indicate  a later  date;  so  that 
it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  woven  about  the  first  of  the  XV 
Century.  Dr.  Martin  regards  this  piece  as  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
Timurid  period  if  not  from  the  Mongolian,  and  says  that  the  trees 
resemble  those  in  a Mongolian  miniature  in  the  Musee  des  Arts  Deco- 
ratifs  in  Paris,  and  in  a manuscript  from  the  year  1396.  At  any 
rate,  they  display  more  formal  drawing  than  the  trees  of  more  re- 
cent carpets.  The  character  of  pattern  and  the  colouring  suggest 
that  it  was  woven  in  Northwestern  Persia. 

The  field  is  skilfully  divided  into  three  subfields  by  beds  of 
flowers,  from  which  slender  trees  rise  and  partly  screen  from  view 
more  stately  cypresses.  The  subdivisions  are  further  indicated  by 
pairs  of  palmettes,  of  which  the  upper  pair  mark  a transition  be- 
tween the  lower  pair  and  those  more  elegant  forms  commonly  seen 
two  centuries  later.  There  are  likewise  palmettes  of  simpler  form 
in  the  two  guard  stripes.  But  the  principal  ornamentation  of  the 
rich  border  is  the  interlacing  arabesques  of  three  different  colours, 
which  are  decorated  with  a slender  wreath  of  leaf  and  flower.  There 
is,  moreover,  a particular  interest  in  the  grouping  of  the  arabesques 
since  they  form  a design  which  may  be  the  prototype  of  the  so- 
called  turtle  borders  so  frequently  seen  in  Feraghans  and  Gore- 
vans,  and  is  itself  derived,  according  to  Dr.  Martin,  from  a still 
older  form  in  which  branching  arabesques  extend  across  the  whole 
field.  It  may  not  be  unreasonable  to  assume  that  this  pattern  has 


so 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


been  handed  down  from  that  earlier  period  when  a Saracenic  influ- 
ence was  felt  in  all  the  weavings. 

If  the  chief  interest  in  this  piece  is  centred  in  the  pattern,  its 
greatest  charm  lies  in  its  soft,  dainty  colours,  some  of  which  are  ex- 
quisitely beautiful.  They  are  expressed  in  delicate  shades  of  orange, 
ivory,  light  green,  sable  brown,  and  light  and  dark  blue  on  a back- 
ground of  pinkish  red.  This  pattern  and  colouring  suggest  an  East- 
ern wood  when  the  first  frost  of  autumn  has  left  its  touch  on  the 
leaves.  The  border  contains  the  same  colours  as  the  field  but  is 
strong  and  effective,  since  the  soft  tones  are  in  the  narrow  guard 
stripes  and  the  deeper  colours  appear  in  the  broad  central  stripe  in 
larger  masses  and  in  immediate  contact. 

If  this  carpet  was  woven  about  1400  a.d.,  as  seems  not  improb- 
able, the  drawing  of  the  trees,  palmettes,  and  border  designs  becomes 
by  comparison  an  important  guide  for  determining  the  age  of  other 
antique  Persian  carpets. 

Very  different,  indeed,  from  the  preceding  is  a woollen  piece 
(Plate  13,  opp.  Page  70),  sixteen  feet  four  inches  long  by  eleven  feet 
two  inches  wide,  that  was  formerly  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Vincent 
Robinson  of  London,  but  is  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  New  York,  which  bought  it  at  the  Yerkes  sale  in  1910,  for 
$19,600.  It  has  about  six  hundred  knots  to  the  square  inch,  and  is 
woven  with  warp  of  cotton  and  silk,  and  with  weft  of  silk.  The 
pile  is  velvety,  and  the  texture,  drawing,  and  colouring  display  a high 
grade  of  artistic  craftsmanship.  Another  of  similar  character  is 
represented  in  the  Vienna  Publication  of  Oriental  Carpets  of  1889, 
at  which  time  it  belonged  to  the  Countess  Clotilde  Clam-Gallas  of 
Vienna;  and  a third  belongs  to  the  Palais  de  Commerce  at  Lyons. 

In  no  other  rugs  from  Iran  is  the  effect  of  Mongolian  tradition 
on  design  more  noticeable;  but  that  this  was  due  to  the  Timurid 
invasion  at  the  end  of  the  XIV  Century  is  doubtful,  and  it  is  not 
improbable  that  more  immediate  intervention  with  China  deter- 
mined the  motives.  Nor  is  the  Saracenic  influence  obscured,  since 
in  every  part  of  the  field  and  border  is  seen  the  perfect  rhythm  of 
graceful  arabesques.  Such  carpets  represent,  in  fact,  the  transi- 
tion from  those  earlier  pieces  to  the  higher  products  of  Persian 
looms. 

One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  studying  the  pattern  is  to  regard 
it  as  consisting  of  a number  of  units  formed  by  a large  rounded 
octagon  encircled  by  eight  heart-shaped  escutcheons,  and  with  a 


Plate  17.  So-called  Polish  or  Polonaise  Carpet  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  New  York 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


81 


smaller  rounded  octagon  at  the  centre  of  the  diagonal  lines  con- 
necting them.  On  the  large  octagons,  which  are  of  dark  blue  crossed 
by  narrow  bands  of  sable  brown,  is  represented  the  fight  of  dragon 
and  phoenix  so  common  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  Ming  dynasty; 
and  in  the  smaller  octagons,  which  are  plum  colour,  are  four  running 
lions  in  red,  blue,  and  green.  The  eight  escutcheons  alternate  in 
crimson  and  blue,  and  have  arabesques  and  Chinese  ducks.  The 
large  pentagonal-shaped  areas  of  the  ivory  field  are  covered  with  a 
most  symmetrically  drawn  tracery  of  tendrils  and  flowers  in  red, 
yellow,  and  blue;  and  in  the  smaller  hexagonal-shaped  areas  are 
cloud  bands  of  similar  colours. 

The  border  shows  a marked  advance  over  that  of  the  preceding 
piece.  The  main  stripe,  which  follows  a pattern  that  with  slight 
modification  is  adopted  in  many  of  the  carpets  of  this  and  a later 
period,  consists  of  a chain-like  series  of  octagons  similar  to  those  of 
the  field,  separating  elongated  panels  with  crenated  edges.  The 
latter  are  adorned  with  cloud  bands  in  yellow  interlaced  with  deli- 
cate tendrils  supporting  flowers  in  red,  yellow,  green,  and  white,  on 
a dark  blue  field;  and  surrounding  them  on  a red  ground  is  also  a 
delicate  tracery  of  leaves  and  flowers.  The  outer  and  inner  stripes 
have  arabesques  and  tendrils  bearing  flowers  in  red,  green,  and 
blue  on  a ground  of  golden  yellow.  All  the  colours  of  both  field  and 
border  have  mellowed  into  rich,  beautiful  hues  in  which  is  the  most 
perfect  harmony. 

The  intricacy  and  character  of  design,  the  delicacy  of  drawing, 
and  the  tones  of  colour  indicate  that  this  piece  was  woven  near  the 
beginning  of  the  Safavid  dynasty,  in  the  early  part  of  the  XVI  Cen- 
tury. Mr.  Robinson  ascribes  its  origin  to  Bagdad;  but  it  seems  far 
more  probable  that  it  came  from  the  northwestern  part  of  Persia, 
which  was  an  important  centre  of  textile  art  only  a few  years  later. 
This  piece  and  the  two  others  described  on  the  pages  just  preceding 
are  among  the  most  interesting  carpets  now  existing;  for  they  rep- 
resent not  only  a very  high  standard  of  the  textile  craft,  but  also 
most  important  steps  in  it<s  development. 

There  is  no  evidence  to  indicate  how  early  animal  carpets  were 
woven  in  Persia.  Dr.  Martin  found  a piece  with  archaic  drawing, 
that  from  its  resemblance  to  an  old  tile  of  established  age,  he  placed 
at  about  the  year  1300  A.  D.;  but  it  was  about  the  beginning  of  the 
XVI  Century  that  were  woven  the  first  of  those  masterly  pieces 
which  displayed  animals  surrounded  by  a maze  of  floral  life.  Lions, 


82 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


leopards,  boars,  deer,  and  hounds  were  the  principal  motives.  To 
each  of  these  was  ascribed  some  principle  or  quality,  so  that  it  has 
been  assumed  that  the  aim  of  the  weaver  was  to  give  expression  to 
some  theme  of  interest. 

A number  of  these  carpets  represent  the  chase  and  are  called 
“ Hunting  Carpets.”  The  best  of  them  are  regarded  by  Dr.  Martin 
as  belonging  to  the  latter  half  of  the  XVI  Century  for  reasons  in- 
dicated in  the  following  extract  from  his  work:  “The  manuscript 
of  Nizami,  one  of  the  pearls  of  the  British  Museum,  which  was 
executed  in  Tabriz  1539-1542  for  the  Shah  Tamasp,  has  the  most 
wonderful  designs  on  the  margins.  Although  the  manuscripts  and 
the  miniatures  are  signed  by  Persia’s  most  renowned  masters,  there 
is  nothing  to  give  a hint  as  to  who  has  drawn  these  magnificent 
borders.  This  manuscript,  which  at  the  time  it  was  written,  was 
considered  one  of  the  most  remarkable  ‘the  like  of  which  the  eye 
of  time  never  beheld,’  plainly  proves  that  the  large  carpets  with 
hunting  scenes  must  be  relegated  to  a later  time  or  to  about  1560- 
1570.  Both  animals  and  trees  are  of  a far  more  stately  and  earlier 
character  in  the  manuscript.” 

One  of  the  best  of  these  pieces  with  animals  (Plate  14,  opp.  Page 72) 
is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  in  New  York,  by  which  it 
was  purchased  at  the  Yerkes  sale  in  1910,  for  $15,200.  It  has  a 
length  of  ten  feet  eleven  inches  with  a breadth  of  five  feet  ten  inches, 
and  an  average  of  four  hundred  and  eighty  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  Both  warp  and  weft  are  of  silk,  and  the  pile  is  of  wool.  As 
it  was  confidently  believed  by  Mr.  Edward  Stebbing  * that  this 
piece  belonged  for  a long  time  to  the  Mosque  of  Ardebil,  where 
Ismael  had  established  his  capital,  and  from  which  Tamasp  sub- 
sequently moved;  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  belongs  to  the  early 
period,  between  the  closing  years  of  Ismael’s  reign  and  the  first 
part  of  the  reign  of  Tamasp.  f Nor  is  there  anything  in  the  tech- 
nique of  colour  or  design  to  convey  a different  impression,  as  the 
general  colour  of  the  field  is  a claret  red,  and  that  of  the  border  a 
dark  blue  characteristic  of  this  period. 

The  most  noticeable  feature  of  the  carpet  is  the  display  of  animal 
life  amid  the  carefully  balanced  arrangement  of  floral  figures.  Four- 
fifths  of  the  field  can  be  divided  into  two  perfect  squares  with  sides 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  field;  and  the  remainder  will  be  equiva- 

* See  his  work,  “ The  Holy  Carpet  of  the  Mosque  at  Ardebil.” 

t Ismael  reigned,  1502-1524;  Tamasp  reigned,  1524-1576. 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


83 


lent  to  one-lialf  of  one  of  these  squares.  Each  quarter  of  a square 
contains  animals,  probably  intended  to  represent  a lion,  leopard, 
and  boar,  that  are  perfectly  balanced  with  those  of  the  adjacent 
and  alternating  quarters.  Moreover,  the  same  balance  exists  in 
the  case  of  the  smaller  animals  and  floral  forms.  Thus  it  appears 
that  each  square  forms  a perfect  unit  in  which  is  shown  a remarkable 
relation  between  all  parts.  Such  mathematical  exactness  indicates 
the  highest  artistic  skill.  The  repetition  of  pattern  also  accentuates 
the  predominant  idea  of  animal  life,  which  is  rendered  even  more 
noticeable  by  the  strong  golden  yellow  of  some  of  the  group.  Who- 
ever has  studied  the  early  Iranian  monuments  remembers  with 
how  slight  variation  some  of  the  drawing  has  been  copied  during 
subsequent  generations;  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  that  Mr.  Steb- 
bing  should  call  attention  to  the  resemblance  of  some  of  the  animals 
in  this  carpet  to  those  of  the  rock-carved  sculptures  of  Tak-i-Bostan 
near  Kermanshah. 

As  is  the  case  with  most  modern  Persian  rugs,  there  is  no  corre- 
spondence between  the  size  of  the  animals  and  the  flowers.  Never- 
theless the  lack  of  harmony  is  not  felt,  as  the  animal  and  the  floral 
life  are  intended  to  be  regarded  separately.  The  principal  flowers 
of  the  field  are  peonies,  some  of  which  are  woven  with  silver  threads. 
They  also  appear  in  the  border  arranged  with  perfect  precision 
within  the  folds  of  symmetrical  cloud-bands  and  interlacing  ara- 
besques. The  latter  form  a well-executed  repetitive  figure  that 
suggests  an  origin  for  the  reciprocal  trefoil  or  lily  pattern,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  which  received  its  highest  development  in  the 
silk  rugs  of  a later  century. 

On  the  whole,  this  piece  is  not  far  short  of  the  highest  sumptu- 
ary standard  of  a subsequent  period,  and  is  an  excellent  example 
of  the  artistic  development  of  the  earliest  part  of  the  Safavid  dy- 
nasty. In  few  other  carpets  is  combined  such  intricacy  of  design 
with  richness  and  simplicity  of  colour. 

Of  still  greater  interest  than  the  last  is  the  Arbedil  Carpet,  now 
in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  It  has  a length  of  thirty -four 
and  a half  feet  with  a breadth  of  seventeen  and  a half;  the  texture 
shows  about  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  knots  to  the  square 
inch;  and  the  pile  is  of  wool  tied  to  warp  and  weft  of  silk.  It  has 
been  very  carefully  studied  by  Mr.  Edward  Stebbing,  from  whose 
description  the  following  extracts  are  taken: 

“The  body  ground  is  blue,  covered  with  a floral  tracery  of 


84 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


exquisite  delicacy  and  freedom  of  treatment.  A central  medallion 
of  pale  yellow  terminates  on  its  outer  edge  in  sixteen  minaret- 
shaped  points  from  which  spring  sixteen  cartouches;  four  green, 
four  red,  and  eight  light  cream;  and  from  two  of  these  again,  as  it 
were,  suspended  and  hanging  in  the  direction  of  the  respective  ends 
of  the  carpet,  two  of  the  sacred  lamps  of  the  mosque. 

“Quarter  sections  of  the  central  medallion  also  on  a pale  yellow 
ground,  relieved  by  tracery,  form  the  angles;  while  a broader 
border  completes  the  glorious  design,  a border  of  the  alternate 
elongated  and  rounded  cartouches  filled  with  floral  and  other  tracery, 
the  former  on  a base  of  red,  the  latter  on  a rich  brown  ground  flanked 
on  the  inner  side  by  a broad  band  of  cream  seven  inches  wide,  relieved 
by  a variation  of  a so-called  cloud  pattern,  and  a narrower  band  of 
crimson  near  the  body  of  the  carpet;  and  on  the  outer  side  by  a 
single  broad  band,  also  seven  inches  wide,  of  tawny  hue,  shading 
from  dark  to  light,  and  relieved  by  a bold  design  in  blue.” 

But  however  exquisite  the  tracery,  however  delicate  the  colour- 
ing, the  greatest  interest  centres  in  the  fact  that  in  a panel  adjoining 
the  border  of  the  upper  end  is  the  following  inscription: 

“I  have  no  refuge  in  the  world  other  than  thy  threshold; 

“My  head  has  no  protection  other  than  thy  porchway; 

“The  work  of  the  slave  of  the  holy  place,  Maksoud  of  Kashan, 
in  the  year  942.” 

Here  is  revealed  the  age  of  the  carpet,  which  not  only  determines 
the  character  of  workmanship  of  a particular  period,  but  affords  a 
standard  for  determining  by  comparison  the  relative  age  of  other 
pieces.  The  year  942  corresponds  with  our  year  1539  A.  D.,  and 
the  position  of  the  date  indicates  that  it  was  inscribed  a little  before 
the  completion  of  the  fabric.  Accordingly,  it  would  not  be  unreason- 
able to  assume  that  the  carpet  was  begun  during  the  closing  years 
of  the  reign  of  Ismael,  who  died  at  Ardebil  in  1524,  and  that  it  was 
finished  during  the  reign  of  Tarnasp  I. 

To  infer  that  at  this  period  were  many  such  carpets  would  be  a 
mistake;  since  this  was  doubtless  woven  by  the  order  of  the  court, 
and  by  one  of  the  most  skilled  artisans,  who  may  have  made  it  the 
crowning  labour  of  his  life.  It  indicates  the  highest  technique  ac- 
quired in  the  early  part  of  the  Safavid  dynasty. 

Besides  the  mosque  carpets,  other  pieces  such  as  small  prayer 
rugs  were  used  for  devotional  purposes.  When  the  first  of  them 
were  made  is  unknown,  though  they  existed  in  the  days  of  the 


Plate  18.  So-called  Ispahan  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 


of  Art,  New  Y 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


85 


Caliplis,  when  the  words  of  the  Prophet  were  still  fresh  in  the  mem- 
ories of  his  followers;  and  they  were  also  used  at  an  early  period 
among  Turkomans.  The  oldest  that  remain  belong  to  the  early 
part  of  the  Safavid  rule.  One  that  was  formerly  in  the  collec- 
tion of  Stefano  Bardini  of  Florence  and  is  now  owned  by  Mr. 
Benjamin  Altman,  appeared  at  the  exhibit  of  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  in  1910.  It  is  a woollen  piece  with  a length  of 
nearly  five  and  a half  feet  and  a breadth  of  three  and  a quarter.  In 
the  central  field  is  a prayer  arch  resembling  some  of  a later  period, 
with  outlines  gracefully  recurving  near  the  base  and  broken  on  each 
side  by  a pentagonal-shaped  flower.  All  parts  of  each  of  the  two 
trees  that  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  field  are  reversely  duplicated 
in  the  other.  Some  of  the  stiffness  of  drawing  of  the  earlier  carpets 
remains,  but  the  blossoms  are  clustered  more  naturally  and  the 
whole  treatment  is  more  skilful.  The  effect  of  the  scroll-work  on 
the  red  ground  of  the  spandrel;  of  the  suspended  lamp  with  its 
bright  flowers  of  red,  yellow,  and  pink;  and  of  the  blossoming  trees 
beneath,  is  most  pleasing;  but  the  chief  interest  centres  in  the  outer 
border  stripe,  where  appear  features  that  are  more  interesting  than 
harmonious,  features  derived  from  Persia,  Assyria,  Mongolia,  and 
Arabia.  The  rounded  octagons  have  Cufic  lettering  that  recalls 
early  Mesopotamian  civilisation;  the  cartouches  at  the  bottom 
with  their  cloud-bands  suggest  Mongolian  conquests;  and  the  upper 
cartouches  contain  the  following  verses  from  the  Koran: 

“Iman  the  victorious  and  expected  Malidi,  the  Lord  of  the  Age. 

Zalsi  and  Hason;  and  bless  the  standing  proof. 

Oh  Lord  bless  Mohammed  the  chosen  one.  Ali,  the  elect, 
Fatimeh  the  Immaculate. 

Jofer  Sadik,  Mooza  Kazin,  Ali  Riza  Mohammed  Taki,  Mo- 
hammed Nakee,  Ali. 

The  two  branches  Ilarson  and  Hussein  Bless  Ali  Zaimulubbad 
Mohammed  Bak’r.” 

These  verses,  the  archaic  lamp,  and  the  green  of  the  field,  a colour 
sacred  to  Moslems,  all  indicate  the  religious  character  of  the  carpet. 
Similar  features  also  appear  in  another  antique  piece  of  about  the 
same  age,  but  the  Cufic  characters  of  the  border  are  within  squares 
surrounded  by  circles  that  resemble  Chinese  seals  as  they  appear  in 
early  manuscripts.  Both  of  these  pieces  were  probably  woven  in 
Northwestern  Persia  about  the  middle  of  the  XVI  Century.  Few 
such  prayer  carpets  remain,  though  without  doubt  they  were  used 


86 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


by  devotees  during  succeeding  periods,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see, 
even  in  modern  Kermanshahs,  prayer  arches  of  the  same  pattern. 

Of  totally  different  character  but  of  about  the  same  age  is  an 
animal  rug  (Plate  15,  opp.  Page  76)  that  belongs  to  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art.  It  was  bought  at  the  Yerkes  sale  in  1910,  for 
$5,600,  and  had  previously  belonged  to  the  collection  of  Vincent 
Robinson  of  London.  It  has  a length  of  about  seven  and  a half 
feet  with  a breadth  of  about  five  and  a half,  and  consists  of  woollen 
pile  tied  to  cotton  warp  crossed  by  woollen  weft.  The  weave  is  not 
unlike  what  is  seen  in  many  modern  Sarouks;  as  the  knot  is  Sehna, 
one  thread  of  warp  is  doubled  under  the  other  in  each  knot,  and 
the  coloured  thread  of  weft,  which  crosses  twice,  is  partly  exposed 
at  the  back. 

Like  so  many  of  the  old  Persian  pieces,  the  ground  colour  of  red 
appears  in  the  main  field,  and  is  strongly  contrasted  with  the  dark 
blue  of  the  medallion  and  dark  green  of  the  corners.  Red  and 
green  also  appear  in  the  border  contrasted  with  yellow.  This 
association  of  colour  is  not  usual,  nor  is  the  repetitive  pattern  of  the 
border  with  its  sharp  cusps  at  many  of  the  angles,  nor  the  trapezi- 
form  corners,  and  the  nearly  rectangular  medallion.  Likewise  the 
mechanically  formed  bushes  with  their  quince-like  fruit,  on  which 
sit  birds  of  disproportionate  size,  show  a departure  from  the  accepted 
traditions  of  the  Safavid  schools.  Yet  these  very  features  awaken 
new  interest,  and  suggest  that  it  was  probably  woven  in  some  part 
of  Northern  or  Western  Persia  where  the  influence  of  the  court  was 
not  paramount.  Nevertheless  the  accurate  balance  of  the  differ- 
ent halves,  aiid  the  drawing  of  the  palmettes  show  that  it  is  dis- 
tinctly Iranian. 

If  this  last  piece  be  compared  with  the  animal  rug  (Plate  16,  opp. 
Page  78)  that  was  presented  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 
by  Mr.  Cochran,  the  wide  contrast  will  at  once  be  noticeable.  As 
the  latter  has  a length  of  about  eight  and  two-thirds  feet  with  a 
breadth  of  nearly  six,  the  difference  in  size  and  proportions  is  not 
great;  nor  is  there  any  particular  difference  in  the  number  of  ani- 
mals; nor  in  the  balanced  relation  of  upper  and  lower,  right  and 
left  halves;  nor  in  the  red  ground  of  the  main  fields.  But  here  the 
resemblance  ends.  Whereas  in  the  former  the  animals  are  one  of 
the  most  prominent  features,  in  the  latter  they  are  subordinate  to 
the  rich  assemblage  of  floral  and  palmette  forms,  that  occupy  not 
only  the  field  but  also  the  border.  It  is,  indeed,  a piece  that  marks 


Plate  19.  Armenian  Carpet  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  New  York 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


87 


a transition  from  the  animal  rugs,  so  prominent  in  the  early  part  of 
the  XVI  Century  but  rarely  woven  later  than  its  end,  to  the  more 
elegant  pieces,  so  characteristic  of  the  court  of  Ispahan,  which  be- 
long almost  exclusively  to  the  XVII  Century.  It  accordingly  seems 
not  without  reason  to  assign  it  to  about  the  year  1600. 

Not  only  do  these  different  elements  that  denote  a transition  add 
interest;  they  also  give  a most  pleasing  effect.  The  main  border 
stripe  of  a rich  green  with  its  well -drawn  palmettes  surrounded  by 
vines  and  foliated  stalks,  on  which  rest  naturally  drawn  birds  of 
handsome  plumage,  and  the  chaste  floral  designs  of  the  narrow 
guards,  serve  as  a tasteful  frame  to  the  central  picture.  Here 
again  the  outer  field,  with  artistic  effect,  brings  into  greater  relief 
the  central  medallion,  where  on  a ground  of  greenish  yellow,  stand- 
ing and  seated  amidst  blossoming  shrubs  in  red,  blue,  and  green,  as 
in  a garden,  are  richly  dressed  human  forms.  Apart  from  these, 
yet  perhaps  intended  in  some  way  to  reflect  the  tenor  of  their 
thoughts,  are  four  ducks,  emblematic  of  matrimonial  happiness. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  original  shade  of  the  central  me- 
dallion, it  is  now  slightly  out  of  harmony  with  the  surrounding 
colours,  and  is  perhaps  the  only  jarring  note  in  this  exquisite 
piece  of  workmanship.  Not  improbably  the  present  shade  is 
due  to  the  unfriendly  hand  of  time,  since  the  artistic  genius  of  the 
weaver  is  fully  displayed  in  the  masterly  arrangement  of  other 
colours  and  in  the  delicacy  and  precision  of  the  drawing  of  the  per- 
fectly balanced  floral  and  animal  forms. 

The  difficulty  of  determining  the  locality  where  the  antique 
carpets  were  woven  is  often  greater  than  in  the  case  of  modern  rugs, 
but  this  piece  was  probably  one  of  the  last  of  those  fine  old  animal 
carpets  that  were  woven  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Persia. 

Though  modern  silk  rugs  fail  to  awaken  the  interest  of  woollen 
pieces,  the  old  silk  carpets  were  formerly  regarded  as  the  choicest 
products  of  weaving.  As  a rule,  they  were  the  work  of  the  most 
skilled  artists  employed  in  the  imperial  factory  under  the  direction 
and  patronage  of  the  court.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Shah 
Tamasp  that  they  received  special  attention.  Following  a custom 
that  had  been  in  vogue  of  sending  carpets  as  presents  to  foreign 
courts,  in  1566  he  sent  to  the  Sultan  of  Constantinople  a number  of 
pieces  on  which  flowers,  birds,  and  animals  were  woven  with  silk 
on  threads  of  gold.  But  it  was  doubtless  after  his  successor  Shah 
Abbas  I had  begun  to  embellish  his  capital  at  Ispahan,  that  were 


88 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


made  the  famous  “Polish”  silk  or  “Polonaise”  carpets  about  which 
there  has  been  so  much  controversy.  It  is  true  that  Mr.  Robinson 
in  his  “Eastern  Carpets”  claims  that  they  were  woven  in  Poland  by 
Persians  taken  there  by  a Pole  named  Mersherski;  but  it  seems  far 
more  probable  that  they  were  woven  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Persian  court  and  were  either  sent  as  presents  to  European  sov- 
ereigns or  purchased  by  wealthy  connoisseurs  of  art. 

How  many  of  these  pieces  may  be  hidden  away  in  the  palaces 
and  mosques  of  the  far  East  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  but  two 
hundred  would  be  a very  conservative  estimate  of  the  number 
owned  by  the  different  courts  of  Europe  and  by  private  collectors 
of  that  country  and  America.  One  of  them  was  presented  to  the 
Danish  court  as  late  as  1639;  and  it  is  believed  that  all  that  reached 
Europe  arrived  there  between  the  years  1604  and  1650. 

Their  beauty  is  exquisite  and  chaste.  To  the  threads  of  silver 
and  gold  is  tied  silken  nap  that  often  displays  a striking  brilliancy. 
Unlike  the  earlier  Persian  carpets  which  had  more  subdued  hues, 
these  pieces  have  light  tones  such  as  salmon,  rose,  and  green,  which 
are  arranged  with  perfect  harmony.  Moreover,  there  is  an  ele- 
gance of  design  representing  the  highest  types  of  Iranian,  Saracenic, 
and  Mongolian  influences  combined.  Here  in  perfection  are  dainty 
floral  forms,  the  rhythmic  tracery  of  arabesques,  and  delicate  cloud- 
bands.  In  them  the  textile  art  of  the  East  reached  a perfection  that 
probably  has  never  been  surpassed. 

One  of  these  (Plate  17,  opp.  Page  80),  that  has  a length  of  about 
nine  feet  and  a breadth  of  five  and  a half,  belongs  to  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  of  Art.  In  many  respects  it  is  typical  of  its  class,  though 
threads  of  yellow  and  grey  are  substituted  for  the  usual  gold  and 
silver  of  the  foundation.  On  a field  of  rose  are  outlined  palmettes, 
leaves,  and  scrolls  in  green,  blue,  brown,  and  salmon,  that  harmo- 
nise with  the  light  blue  of  the  border.  All  of  these  colours  blend  with 
pleasing  effect  and  soften  lines  that  in  a print  seem  harsh.  Further- 
more with  all  its  complexity  of  detail,  every  part  of  the  pattern  is 
arranged  with  mathematical  precision.  That  a carpet  with  such 
perfect  balance  of  every  part,  such  intricacy  of  elaborate  detail, 
such  graceful  curves  of  the  heavy  foliate  leaves  should  be  woven 
without  copying  some  older  pattern  or  a carefully  executed  draw- 
ing, seems  improbable. 

In  this  piece  and  in  others  of  the  same  class  can  be  recognised 
what  is  probably  the  prototype  of  more  conventionalised  and  less 


Plate  20.  Asia  Minor  Dragon  and  Phoenix  Carpet  in  the  Kaiser 
Friedrich  Museum,  Berlin 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


89 


elegant  designs  so  often  seen  in  modern  Persian  pieces,  since  the 
palmette  with  encircling  lancet  leaves  in  its  borders  is  most  sug- 
gestive of  the  borders  of  modern  Ilerats;  and  the  rhomboidal- 
shaped  figure  connecting  four  palmettes  at  the  centre  is  equally 
suggestive  of  the  Herati  or  fish  pattern  seen  in  the  field  of  innumer- 
able Feraglians. 

It  was  also  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Abbas  * and  his  immediate 
successors  that  most  of  the  so-called  Ispahans  were  woven,  though 
some  of  them  appeared  as  early  as  the  XV  and  some  as  late  as  the 
close  of  the  XVII  Century.  As  in  the  case  with  the  Polish  silk 
carpets,  within  recent  years  some  difference  of  opinion  has  existed 
regarding  the  place  of  their  manufacture.  After  careful  research. 
Dr.  Martin  believes  that  they  came  from  Herat  and  with  this  idea 
some  other  authorities  concur.  It  is  true  that  Herat  belonged  to 
the  Persian  Empire  during  the  reign  of  the  Safavid  dynasty,  and 
that  even  in  the  days  of  Shah  Ismael  magnificent  carpets  were  woven 
there.  It  is  also  true  that  during  the  time  of  Tamasp  and  Abbas 
it  was  as  important  an  art  centre  as  Tabriz,  and  that  the  weaving 
of  carpets  was  a leading  industry  there.  Furthermore,  there  has 
not  been  found  the  same  evidence  to  show  that  Ispahan  was  at 
this  period  an  equally  important  centre  of  weaving.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  well  known  that  the  splendid  industrial  and  art  prod- 
ucts of  this  period  were  largely  due  to  the  direct  encouragement 
and  favour  of  the  court,  and  that  the  court  was  for  most  of  the  time 
at  Ispahan.  It  is  also  known  that  skilled  artisans  were  repeatedly 
removed  from  one  district  to  another  at  the  command  of  a sovereign, 
so  that  carpets  of  similar  character  might  be  woven  contempo- 
raneously in  remote  parts  of  Persia.  It  accordingly  seems  not 
improbable  that  the  original  type  of  these  carpets  was  evolved  at 
Herat  and  that  many  of  them  at  least  were  made  at  Herat,  but 
that  others  were  also  made  at  Ispahan.  At  any  rate  they  were 
made  to  a great  extent  under  the  influence  that  emanated  from 
Ispahan. 

Almost  without  exception  they  are  pieces  of  large  size  and 
oblong  shape.  The  ground  colour  of  the  field  is  usually  red,  the 
border  blue;  but  blue  is  occasionally  used  in  the  field  and  green  in 
the  border.  Their  distinguishing  feature  is  the  use  of  the  palmette, 
that  was  probably  derived  from  the  lotus,  so  frequently  associated 
with  the  Buddhist  cult  of  India  and  China.  In  the  field  it  gener- 

* 1586-1628. 


90 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


ally  occurs  in  pairs  that  slightly  vary  in  size.  Of  almost  equal 
importance  are  the  Chinese  cloud-bands  and  the  scrolls  or  ara- 
besques. These  three  designs  were  constant  motives  in  almost  all 
the  Ispahans;  but  they  were  subject  to  modifications  in  size  and 
shape,  which  appearing  in  chronological  order  furnish  some  guide  to 
the  time  when  the  carpets  were  woven.  For  instance,  the  palmettes 
were  at  first  small  and  distributed  plentifully  over  the  field;  later 
they  became  larger,  until  in  a few  instances  they  were  a yard  in  di- 
ameter. Dr.  Martin  says  that  in  the  first  part  of  the  XVII  Century 
the  palmettes  began  to  be  very  large  and  the  richness  of  the  interior 
design  to  disappear;  until  at  the  end  of  the  XVII  Century  only  a 
few  were  sufficient  to  cover  the  ground  that  one  hundred  years 
before  was  almost  hidden  by  innumerable  designs  of  small  pal- 
mettes, cloud-bands,  and  scroll  work.  He  also  states  that  towards 
the  middle  of  the  XVII  Century  the  borders  began  to  lose  their 
importance  and  that  the  palmettes  were  surrounded  by  two  long, 
narrow  leaves. 

Though  most  of  the  antique  Iranian  carpets  that  remain  were 
woven  in  the  Northern  provinces,  it  is  well  known  that  even  from 
earliest  times  carpets  of  elaborate  design  and  skilful  technique 
were  also  woven  in  Southern  Persia.  In  fact,  many  of  the  wonder- 
ful pieces  that  adorned  the  palaces  and  mosques  of  the  Fatimid 
Caliphs  of  Egypt  came  from  the  districts  of  Fars  and  Kirman.  The 
latter,  notwithstanding  invasions  of  Seljukian  Turks,  Mongolians, 
and  Afghans,  has  continued  almost  uninterruptedly  as  a centre  of 
the  textile  industry;  yet  comparatively  few  pieces  exist  that  were 
woven  there  three  or  four  centuries  ago.  Their  colour  scheme  har- 
monises more  with  that  of  the  carpets  of  Western  Persia  than  with 
the  more  sombre  tones  of  the  old  animal  carpets  and  Ispahans,  or 
with  the  brighter  hues  of  the  so-called  Polish.  Their  patterns 
also  show  a distinction  from  those  of  northern  textile  fabrics.  The 
fields  are  often  artificially  divided,  by  foliate  stalks  or  lance-shaped 
leaves  with  serrated  edges,  into  rhomboidal  figures  that  contain 
mechanically  drawn  shrubs,  palmettes,  or  flowers.  In  the  main 
stripe  of  the  border  are  generally  represented  interlacing  arabesques 
adorned  with  flowering  vines  or  arabesques  and  a subpattern  of 
vines.  Mongolian  designs  are  rarely  seen  in  any  of  these  pieces, 
which  probably  represent  more  closely  than  any  other  Persian 
carpets  native  art  unaffected  by  foreign  influences.  Almost  all 
of  them  are  now  owned  in  Europe. 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


91 


Of  the  early  rugs,  those  woven  in  Armenia  are  far  less  known 
than  those  from  Persia.  Nevertheless,  it  may  reasonably  be  as- 
sumed that  the  high  culture  that  was  manifested  in  Bagdad  and 
Ctesiplion  during  the  sway  of  the  Caliphs  was  felt  among  the  moun- 
tainous districts  to  the  north;  and  that  the  Seljukian  rulers,  who  left 
such  artistic  monuments  in  the  old  Armenian  capitals,  appreciated 
and  encouraged  the  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  fabrics.  In  fact, 
Marco  Polo,  who  travelled  through  that  region  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  XIII  Century,  referred  to  them  as  being  remarkably  handsome. 

Probably  the  oldest  remaining  pieces  are  the  so-called  Dragon 
carpets,  which,  it  is  believed,  were  produced  from  the  XIV  to  the 
XVII  Century  and  possibly  even  earlier.  Not  infrequently  the 
length  is  at  least  twice  the  breadth;  the  very  narrow  border  oc- 
casionally consists  of  only  a single  stripe;  and  the  field  is  occupied 
by  a trellis-like  pattern  of  narrow,  conventionalised  leaves,  within 
which  are  designs  containing  archaic  flowers  and  dragons.  The 
ground  colour  of  the  field  is  generally  some  shade  of  red,  that  of  the 
border  white,  and  the  leaves  are  yellow,  blue,  or  green.  In  the 
borders  of  many  of  them  appear  an  S motive  from  which  undoubt- 
edly was  derived  the  design  so  frequently  seen  in  panels  of  more 
recent  Asia  Minor  prayer  rugs. 

In  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  of  New  York  is  a XV  Cen- 
tury carpet  (Plate  19,  opp.  Page  86),  which,  though  widely  differing 
from  these  pieces  in  general  pattern,  so  closely  resembles  them  in  the 
essential  characteristics  of  weave  and  colour  that  it  is  unquestion- 
ably of  the  same  class.  The  field  is  occupied  by  concentric  dia- 
monds with  stepped  sides.  The  encircling  bands,  that  are  mostly 
red,  yellow,  and  violet,  and  the  corners,  that  are  white,  contain 
numerous  archaic  forms,  including  palmettes,  trees,  birds,  and 
animals.  There  are  also  numerous  small  designs  of  the  tri-cleft  leaf 
so  common  to  the  Circassian  and  Soumak  rugs;  and  the  ray -like 
edges  of  the  central  lozenge,  as  well  as  the  four  palmettes  that 
rest  upon  it,  suggest  the  origin  of  the  effulgent  stars  of  old  Daghes- 
tans  and  Kabistans.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  balance  similar 
designs  in  corresponding  parts  of  the  field,  though  its  centre  is  at 
one  side  of  the  geometric  centre  of  the  diamonds.  The  palmettes 
show  distinctly  a strong  Persian  influence  and  the  animal  forms 
likewise  show  that  it  was  not  woven  by  a sectarian  Sunnite  of  West- 
ern Asia  Minor. 

Part  of  a very  unusual  carpet  (Plate  20,  opp.  Page  88),  from  a 


92 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


district  in  Eastern  Asia  Minor,  is  in  the  Kaiser  Friedrich  Museum 
at  Berlin.  Its  principal  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  very  old 
and  that  its  approximate  age  has  been  determined.  In  the  h'ospital 
at  Siena,  Italy,  a similar  rug  is  represented  in  a fresco  called  the 
“Wedding  of  the  Foundling,”  painted  by  Domenico  di  Bartolo 
about  the  year  1440,  so  that  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  this 
particular  piece  was  woven  not  much  later.  In  fact,  its  character 
would  indicate  that  it  or  some  other  from  which  it  has  been 
copied  was  much  older.  Each  of  the  nearly  square  compartments 
contain  octagons,  within  which  on  a yellow  field  are  represented  the 
mythical  fight  of  the  dragon  and  phoenix  that  was  adopted  as  the 
Ming  coat  of  arms.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  chain  pattern 
of  the  brownish-black  main  border  stripe  is  not  unlike  what  is  seen 
in  modern  pieces,  but  the  running  latch  hooks  of  the  corners  and 
the  small  S designs  are  unusually  stiff.  This  disposition  to  formal 
drawing,  which  is  conspicuous  in  all  parts  of  the  rug,  shows  an 
archaic  style  noticeable  only  in  the  very  earliest  carpets. 

In  the  celebrated  painting  of  Georg  Gyze  (Plate  21,  opp.  Page 
92)  which  hangs  in  the  Berlin  Gallery,  is  represented  a rug  of  a 
class  so  frequently  seen  in  the  paintings  of  Hans  Holbein  that  they 
are  known  as  “Holbein  rugs.”  Their  marked  dissimilarity  to  those 
previously  described  indicates  that  they  were  woven  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances  if  not  in  different  regions.  Neither  in  the 
fields  nor  borders  is  any  trace  of  Mongolian  or  Persian  influences; 
and  the  absence  of  all  floral,  leaf,  and  animal  forms  so  usual  in  most 
antique  carpets  is  noticeable.  Indeed,  the  fact  that  animal  forms 
rarely  appear  in  the  art  of  the  Sunni  Mohammedans  aids  in  deter- 
mining the  place  of  their  origin.  They  came  from  Asia  Minor  or 
Western  Armenia. 

It  has  generally  been  assumed  that  they  were  woven  in  Western 
Asia  Minor,  because  they  were  purchased  there  in  former  centuries 
and  taken  thence  to  Europe;  but  they  possess  many  features  that 
indicate  they  may  have  been  woven  farther  to  the  east,  whence 
many  could  easily  have  been  transported  westward  in  caravans. 
Their  borders  contain  the  well-known  pattern  derived  from  Cufic 
letters  which,  more  conventionalised,  appears  in  later  years  only  in 
such  rugs  as  the  Kabistans  and  Daghestans  of  Eastern  Caucasia. 
Most  of  them  also  contain  the  small  octagonal  discs  and  larger 
octagonal  figures  with  Greek  crosses  at  the  centre  that  suggest 
forcibly  the  designs  of  Southeastern  Caucasia.  The  narrow  stripes 


1 late  21.  Portrait  of  Georg  Gyze  by  Hans  Holbein,  showing  a Holbein 

Rug  with  Cufic  Border 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


93 


of  ribbon  and  chain  pattern  found  in  many  of  them  also  are  very 
common  in  Caucasian  rugs;  so  that  it  seems  not  improbable  that 
these  Holbein  rugs  were  made  within  the  boundaries  of  that  greater 
Armenia  which,  embracing  the  upper  Mesopotamian  valley,  ex- 
tended over  the  eastern  part  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  southern  part 
of  modern  Caucasia. 

These  rugs  claim  the  attention  not  only  because  they  have 
borders  of  such  interesting  origin,  but  by  the  fact  that  the  age 
when  they  were  woven  is  ascertainable.  As  Holbein  lived  between 
the  years  1497  and  1543,  and  some  other  rugs  of  this  type  appear 
in  the  works  of  early  Flemish  and  Italian  painters,  it  may  reason- 
ably be  assumed  that  some  of  them  were  made  before  the  end  of 
the  XV  Century. 

A very  excellent  example  of  this  class,  owned  by  Mr.  C.  F. 
Williams,  is  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art.  It  has  a 
length  of  about  five  feet  with  a breadth  of  three  and  a half.  The 
ground  colour  of  the  field  is  an  olive  green  and  that  of  the  main  stripe 
of  the  border  is  red.  The  prevailing  colours  of  the  designs,  which 
are  entirely  geometric,  are  blue,  green,  and  ivory.  All  of  these 
rugs  are  small  or  of  moderate  size,  and  are  slightly  oblong.  Some 
of  them  have  a ground  colour  of  green;  and  yellow  is  frequently 
found  in  the  pattern.  The  weaving  is  rather  loose;  and  compared 
with  Persian  rugs  they  have  fewer  knots  to  the  square  inch. 

Another  carpet  from  Asia  Minor  that  also  belongs  to  Mr.  C.  F. 
Williams  appears  in  Plate  22,  opp.  Page  94.  It  is  the  only  entire 
rug  with  this  pattern  that  is  known,  though  a piece  of  a similar  rug 
is  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  at  London.  On  fields  of  blue 
and  red  are  outlined  three  large  four-pointed  stars  separated  by  smaller 
diamonds.  Within  these  figures  and  in  the  surrounding  field  is  a 
network  of  tracery  supporting  conventionalised  leaf  and  floral 
forms.  Between  the  field  and  the  main  stripe  of  the  narrow  border 
is  a close  co-ordination  of  pattern,  but  the  simple  ribbon  of  the 
inner  guard  seems  alien.  It  appears  without  modification  in  many 
later  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasian  rugs. 

An  important  feature  are  the  double  knots  at  the  corners  of  the 
stars,  since  they  are  identical  with  designs  found  in  a manuscript 
made  for  one  of  the  Shahs  in  1435,  and  thus  assist  to  determine  the 
age  of  the  rug.  For  this  reason  and  on  account  of  its  general  .char- 
acter, it  seems  not  unreasonable  to  place  it  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  XV  Century. 


94 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Similar  carpets  were  woven  during  a long  period,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  in  the  latter  half  of  the  following  century  they  were  largely 
influenced  by  the  weavers  that  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  after  cap- 
turing Tabriz  in  1534,  transported  to  his  own  country.  The  same 
general  features  still  remained,  but  the  detail  was  more  elaborate 
and  ornate.  Arabesques,  palmettes,  and  floral  forms,  both  of  field 
and  border,  resembled  more  nearly  the  Iranian  character.  But 
at  a later  period,  after  the  beginning  of  the  general  decadence  to 
which  every  industry  and  art  were  subject,  the  patterns  became 
much  simpler,  and  the  colours  were  reduced  almost  exclusively  to 
red  and  blue  with  a little  green.  At  length,  both  pattern  and 
colours  assumed  the  type  of  modern  Oushaks,  that  by  a slow  process 
of  devolution  originated  from  these  antique  pieces. 

In  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor  it  is  probable  that  weaving  existed 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  that  the  earliest  carpets  which  remain, 
though  affected  by  more  eastern  influences,  are  largely  the  product 
of  an  indigenous  art.  But  in  India  it  was  otherwise.  It  is  true 
that  Sir  George  Birdwood  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  the 
Saracens  introduced  carpet-weaving  there;  but  it  is  most  probable 
that  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  armies  of  Tamerlane  and 
during  the  lives  of  many  of  his  successors,  whatever  carpets  were 
woven  were  very  crude.  Even  when  the  Moguls  began  to  build 
and  embellish  palaces,  they  obtained  their  carpets  from  Persia. 
But  at  length  Shah  Akbar  established  manufacturies  at  Lahore 
about  the  year  1580,  and  invited  Persian  weavers  to  settle  there. 
From  them  the  native  workmen  acquired  much  of  their  knowledge 
of  patterns  and  technique. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan  (1628-1658),  builder 
of  the  famous  peacock  throne  and  Taj  Mahal,  that  most  of  the 
choicest  pieces  that  now  remain  were  woven.  In  delicacy  of  texture 
they  rival  those  of  any  other  country,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find 
pieces  with  nearly  eight  hundred  knots  to  the  square  inch;  more- 
over, all  their  designs  are  depicted  with  remarkable  clearness  of 
definition.  One  of  the  most  noted  of  these  carpets  is  the  woollen 
piece,  about  eight  yards  long  by  two  and  a half  wide,  that  was  made 
at  the  royal  factory  at  Lahore  and  presented  to  the  Girdlers  Com- 
pany of  London  in  1634.  The  mingling  of  leaf  and  floral  forms, 
as  well  as  the  Ilcrati  designs  of  rosette  and  crumpled  leaf,  on  a field 
of  red,  shows  unmistakably  its  relation  to  Persian  carpets.  At  the 
same  period  were  woven  large  numbers  of  others  with  fields  covered 


Plate  22.  Oushak  Carpet 

Loaned  l)_\  C.  F.  Williams,  Esq.,  to  the  Metropolitan  Mu  seam  of 
Art,  New  York 


I 


EARLY  RUG  WEAVING 


95 


with  an  imposing  display  of  superbly  drawn  flowers,  of  which  every 
part  from  root  to  leaf  tips  was  represented  with  astonishing  realism. 
Another  class  included  the  animal  or  hunting  carpets,  which  un- 
like their  Persian  prototypes  seem  intended  not  so  much  to  portray 
symbolically  some  historic  event  or  abstract  idea,  as  to  convey  a 
correct  impression  of  an  actual  event. 

One  of  these,  a woollen  piece  with  a length  of  eight  and  a quarter 
feet  and  a breadth  of  five  and  a quarter,  is  in  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts.  The  inspiration  was  from  some  old  Persian  piece, 
but  the  rendering  is  peculiarly  Indian.  In  this  representation  of  an 
Oriental  jungle  is  a strange  mingling  of  the  real  and  unreal.  The 
struggle  of  a monster  bird  with  a winged  beast,  half  lion,  half  ele- 
phant, and  the  demoniac  faces  of  the  border  suggest  the  inspira- 
tion of  early  pagan  mythology;  but  the  movements  of  the  running 
gazelles  and  the  stealthily  creeping  tiger,  the  attitude  of  the  driver 
of  the  cart  and  his  attendant,  are  most  natural.  The  drawing  as  a 
whole  is  exceedingly  delicate.  The  ground  colour  of  the  field  is  the 
red  of  most  Ispahans  and  Herats  of  this  period,  but  the  border  is  a 
cream  colour,  a combination  not  in  accord  with  Persian  tradition. 
The  other  colours  are  fawn,  blue,  pink,  grey  and  brown.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  only  Indian  hunting  carpet  of  its  kind. 

Few  strictly  antique  carpets  from  other  countries  of  the  Orient 
are  known.  Of  the  innumerable  pieces  that  were  surely  woven  in 
Caucasia  and  Western  Turkestan  before  the  end  of  the  XVII  Cen- 
tury, scarcely  a vestige  can  be  found.  Nor  are  there  many  from 
the  looms  of  Syria,  though  in  the  days  of  the  Caliphs  every  mosque 
was  adorned  with  magnificent  carpets.  It  is  true  a few  sterling  pieces 
of  Saracenic  character,  that  have  been  ascribed  to  the  region  about 
Damascus,  still  exist.  There  are  also  a few  rare  and  beautiful 
pieces  that  have  come  to  light  in  China.*  But  of  the  countless 
thousands  that  in  almost  every  country  of  the  Orient  once  covered 
floors  of  palaces  and  mosques,  representing  one  of  the  most  refined 
arts,  now  nearly  lost,  only  an  insignificant  fraction  remains. 


* These  will  be  considered  in  a later  chapter. 


CHART 


Timurid  & 
Turkoman 
dynasties 
1396-1502 


Shah 

Ismael 

1502-1524 


Shah 

Tamasp 

1524-1576 


3 Rulers 


Shah 

Abbas 

1586-1628 


Nadir 

Shah 

1736-1747 


INDICATING  PERIODS  WHEN  ANTIQUE  CARPETS  WERE  MADE 


A.D. 

I 1500 

10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
1600 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
1700 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 


c3  m 

O,  -t— 1 

S a 
o % 

n cs 

O 


o 


a 


a 

(S 

43 

cj 

G, 


Asia  Minor 


Sohman  the 
Magnificent  ■ 
1520-1566 


Ming  dy- 
nasty 
1368-1644 


Ivang-hi 

1661-1722 


Yung-ching 

1722-1736 


Ching-lung 

1736-1795 


China 


Patterns  display  geo- 
metric characteristics,  and 
conventionalized  dragon 
forms:  also  foliate  and 
floral  designs  that  denote 
Persian  influence. 


Patterns  more  floral  and 
represent  Manchurian 
ideas  and  colours. 


Patterns  less  conventional 
and  floral  designs  are 
more  naturalistic. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  MODERN  RUGS 


UGS  contribute  to  the  comfort  of  the  nomad 
more  than  any  other  fabric.  With  them  he 
closes  the  entrance  to  his  tent  or  covers 
the  floor  and  couches  on  which  he  sits  and 
sleeps.  Thrown  over  other  objects  they 
form  the  table,  made  into  saddle  bags 
they  take  the  place  of  trunks.  The  followers 
of  Islam  when  at  prayer  kneel  on  a rug, 
and  in  token  of  affection  spread  one  over  the  grave  of  a friend. 
To  dwellers  in  cities,  also,  rugs  contribute  largely  to  the  comfort  and 
luxury  of  the  home.  Indeed,  without  them  the  splendour  of  Oriental 
life  would  seem  incomplete,  since  they  are  the  principal  furnish- 
ings of  every  house,  where  stout  woven  pieces  with  long  pile  are 
spread  as  floor  coverings,  and  lighter  ones  are  hung  as  portieres  and 
tapestries.  Yet  it  is  in  the  assembly  or  dining  hall  that  the  finest 
rugs  are  used,  though  here  the  most  valued  are  exposed  only  on 
great  occasions. 

In  the  East  a rug  receives  a particular  name  according  to  which 
of  these  special  purposes  it  is  adapted.  The  large,  almost  square 
piece  that  is  used  to  cover  the  centre  of  the  assembly  hall  is  known 
as  the  “Khali;”  and  the  narrow  strips  or  “runners”  that  are  placed 
at  its  sides  and  ends  are  known  as  the  “Kenares.”  It  is  on  the 
Kenares  that  the  servants  are  required  to  walk  and  the  less  hon- 
oured guests  to  stand,  for  they  are  rarely  of  such  fine  quality  as  the 
former.  Before  the  divan,  that  generally  surrounds  three  walls  and 
is  covered  with  fine  cloth  and  velvet,  are  seats  on  which  are  placed 
carpets  called  “Sedjadeh.”  They  are  nearly  twice  as  long  as  broad, 
and  since  they  are  of  moderate  size  and  excellent  quality  they  are 
frequently  used  for  many  other  purposes.  The  hearth  rug,  termed 
“Odjalik,”  can  generally  be  distinguished  from  others,  as  each 
end  of  the  field  is  of  triangular  shape  with  the  apex  at  the  extremity. 
However  much  any  of  these  may  be  valued,  the  one  that  to  every 


98 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


worshipper  of  Allah  has  the  most  sacred  association  is  the  “Namaz- 
lik,”  or  prayer  rug,  at  one  end  of  which  is  an  arch  in  token  of  the 
mosque.  At  call  for  prayer  the  faithful  Moslem  spreads  his  rug  with 
arch  directed  towards  Mecca,  and  kneeling  with  the  palms  of  his 
hands  at  each  side  of  the  centre  he  bows  his  head  till  it  touches  the 
rug.  As  the  Mohammedans  of  Persia  are  unwilling  that  a Namazlik 
be  trampled  by  the  foot  of  an  infidel,  few  from  there  can  be  bought; 
but  the  Mohammedans  of  other  countries  are  less  scrupulous,  so 
that  many  of  the  prayer  rugs  sold  in  America  have  been  made  solely 
for  trade  and  have  never  been  used  in  worship.  They  may  be 
beautiful,  but  special  interest  attaches  to  old  pieces  of  which  the 
well-worn  nap  shows  where  the  knees  of  both  father  and  son  for  over 
half  a century  have  often  pressed.  In  addition  to  these  are  other 
rugs  with  technical  names,  but  a classification  of  much  greater 
importance  is  that  which  depends  on  the  country  or  district  where 
they  are  woven. 

When  the  Oriental  rugs  first  appeared  in  the  market  of  the  United 
States,  they  were  spoken  of  as  “Turkish,”  for  the  reason  that  import- 
ers purchased  them  from  Turkish  merchants  of  Constantinople.  But 
when  it  became  known  that  they  had  been  taken  there  by  caravans 
from  countries  farther  to  the  east,  and  that  large  numbers  of  them  came 
from  Persia,  the  name  “Persian,”  that  to  the  mind  of  many  conveys 
ideas  of  splendour,  was  at  once  applied ; even  to-day  all  classes  of  Ori- 
ental rugs  are  often  spoken  of  as  Persian.  As  objects  of  ornament 
or  utility,  their  value  is  independent  of  their  place  of  origin;  yet  it 
is  known  that  the  wool  of  the  nap  and  the  dyes  used  in  some  dis- 
tricts are  superior  to  those  in  others,  and  that  in  consequence  the 
beauty  of  some  rugs  will  improve  with  age  far  more  than  that  of 
others.  It  is  also  known  that  because  in  certain  districts  the  material 
of  warp  and  weft,  as  well  as  the  workmanship,  is  of  a superior  quality, 
the  rugs  made  there  will  wear  better  than  others.  The  knowledge, 
then,  of  where  a rug  is  made  is  important  in  determining  the  quality 
and  value,  which  otherwise  only  a critical  examination,  that  few 
people  are  able  to  make,  would  show. 

Furthermore,  the  knowledge  of  where  a rug  is  made,  suggesting 
the  class  of  people  who  wove  it,  adds  immeasurably  to  our  interest. 
When,  for  instance,  we  look  at  an  old  piece  of  Kurdish  weave  with 
its  nomadic  designs  and  shaggy  nap,  on  which  a Moslem  savage 
as  an  Apache  often  rested  fully  half  a century  ago,  there  is  called 
up  a picture  of  the  dark-visaged  tribesman,  fearless  and  untamed 


Plate  23.  Seiina  Rug 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  MODERN  RUGS  99 


as  were  his  ancestors  who  contested  the  march  of  Xenophon  over 
two  thousand  years  ago.  We  see  him  wandering  with  his  flocks 
over  the  hills  while  he  watches  for  a chance  to  fall  upon  an  unsus- 
pecting stranger.  We  picture  to  ourselves  the  hut  of  brush  upon 
the  mountain  side  where  a slender  barbaric  girl  bends  to  tie,  with 
wonderful  patience,  the  knots  one  by  one.  So  if  we  would  enjoy 
our  Oriental  rugs,  we  should  know  what  people  made  them,  and 
whence  and  how  they  journeyed,  before  they  reached  our  fireside. 

At  the  request  of  a purchaser  the  vendor  is  ever  ready  to  classify 
a rug,  but  his  statements  are  not  always  reliable.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  even  the  great  importing  houses  are  often  de- 
ceived. Throughout  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Turkestan,  even  farther 
east,  great  fairs  are  regularly  held.  Here  gather  the  representatives 
of  tribes  from  far  distant  quarters  to  enjoy  for  a few  days  or  weeks 
the  gay  life  and  abandon  of  the  East  while  bartering  the  products 
of  their  different  crafts.  Here  come  the  purchasing  agents  look- 
ing for  rugs;  and  the  pieces  that  may  be  brought  from  afar  are  bought 
and  shipped  by  camel  and  rail  to  such  great  marts  as  Tabriz,  Tiflis, 
and  Constantinople,  where  the  bales  are  unpacked  and  the  rugs 
assorted,  classified  and  labelled,  before  they  are  resold  to  the  import- 
ing houses  of  Europe  and  America.  Thus  both  in  the  buying  from 
the  itinerant  agent  of  rugs  assembled  from  different  quarters  and 
in  the  reassortment  at  the  exporting  cities  there  is  frequent  oppor- 
tunity for  errors  of  classification. 

The  characteristics  of  the  different  groups  and  classes  of  rugs 
are  given  in  later  chapters,  but  it  should  not  be  presumed  that  these 
are  infallible  guides  to  the  locality  where  they  were  made.  Often 
a ruler,  by  fostering  art,  has  drawn  to  his  capital  artists  and  artisans 
from  other  districts.  Thus  designs  and  quality  of  workmanship 
characteristic  of  one  district  would  be  adopted  in  another.  So,  too, 
the  great  caravans  that  pass  along  regular  routes  eastward  and 
westward,  and  the  annual  pilgrimages  to  Meshed  and  Mecca,  have 
been  most  potent  influences  for  the  dissemination  of  designs.  Yet 
taking  into  consideration  the  general  pattern  and  smaller  designs; 
the  material  of  warp,  weft,  and  pile;  the  knot;  the  dyes;  the  finish 
of  sides  and  ends,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  weave,  it  is  possible 
with  a reasonable  amount  of  certainty  to  determine  in  what  districts 
almost  all  Oriental  rugs  are  woven. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  names  by  which 
some  of  the  rugs  are  known  in  America  are  not  the  same  as  those 


100 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


by  which  they  are  known  in  Asia.  For  instance,  the  rugs  made  by 
some  of  the  tribes  of  the  Tekke  Khanate  are  known  in  the  Orient  as 
“Tekkes;”  but  as  the  great  depot  for  Turkestan  carpets  was  formerly 
the  city  of  Bokhara,  they  are  generally  known  in  this  country  as 
“Bokharas.”  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  local  distinctions  in  the 
eastern  countries  not  known  in  the  western.  The  accompanying 
classification,  therefore,  is  slightly  arbitrary,  but  should  be  con- 
venient for  reference;  since  the  classes  represent  the  cities  or  dis- 
tricts where  are  woven  the  several  different  kinds,  excepting  the 
Chinese,  which  are  divided  chronologically.  The  names  of  the 
groups  are  not  in  each  instance  entirely  satisfactory,  but  are  prob- 
ably the  best  that  can  be  chosen.  The  fourth  group,  for  example, 
has  frequently  been  called  the  “Turkoman;”  but  as  it  includes  some 
of  the  rugs  of  Afghanistan,  and  also  those  of  Beluchistan,  which  is 
remote  from  Turkestan,  that  name  is  not  sufficiently  comprehensive. 
The  district  where  these  rugs  are  made  is,  strictly  speaking,  the 
western  and  southwestern  part  of  Central  Asia;  but  the  term  here 
employed  has  the  authority  of  some  German  writers  of  note.  So, 
too,  the  rugs  of  Herat,  though  it  is  now  a city  of  Afghanistan,  are 
included  with  the  Persian  group;  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  Herat,  as  well  as  the  districts  of  Mosul  and  Kurdistan,  was 
once  part  of  the  old  Persian  Empire. 


GROUP  I.  PERSIAN. 


(a)  Khorassan  district: 

Herat,  Khorassan,  Meshed. 

( b ) Shiraz  district: 

Ispahan,  Kirman,  Yezd,  Shiraz,  Niris. 

(c)  Feraghan  district: 

Feraghan,  Hamadan,  Kara-Geuz,  Bibikabad,  Iran,  Sarouk,  Kashan, 
Sarabend,  Burujird,  Sultanabad,  Muskabad,  Mahal,  Joshaghan, 
Gulistan,  Teheran. 

(. d ) Sehna  district,  or  Adelan  province: 

Sehna,  Bijar,  Kermanshah,  Persian  Kurdistan,  Karaje. 

( e ) Tabriz  district: 

Tabriz,  Gorevan,  Bakshis,  Serapi,  Herez,  Suj-Bulak,  Karadagh, 
Afshar. 

(/)  Kurdistan  district: 

Western  Kurdistan,  Mosul,  Gozene. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  MODERN  RUGS  101 


GROUP  II.  ASIA  MINOR  OR  TURKISH. 

(a)  West  Asia  Minor  district: 

Bergamo,  Gliiordes,  Kulah,  Oushak,  Ak-Hissar,  Demirdji,  Kutayah, 
Smyrna,  Melez,  Isbarta,  Rhodian,  Broussa,  Hereke. 

( b ) Central  Asia  Minor  district: 

Konieh,  Ladik,  Kir-Shehr,  Anatolian,  Karaman,  Sivas,  Mudjar, 
Nigde,  Tuzla,  Kaisariyeh,  Zile,  Yuruk. 

GROUP  III.  CAUCASIAN. 

(a)  North  Caucasian: 

Daghestan,  Kabistan,  Kuba,  Derbend,  Lesghian,  Chichi,  Tcherkes. 

( b ) Trans  Caucasian: 

Baku,  Shirvan,  Soumak,  Shemakha,  Tiflis,  Kutais,  Kazak,  Karabagh, 
Shusha,  Gengha. 

GROUP  IV.  CENTRAL  ASIATIC. 

(a)  West  Turkoman  sub-group.  Western  influence: 

Royal  Bokhara,  Princess  Bokhara,  Tekke,  Yomud,  Khiva,  Afghan, 
Beshir. 

( b ) East  Turkoman  sub-group.  Eastern  influence: 

Samarkand,  Kashgar,  Yarkand. 

(c)  Beluchistan. 


GROUP  V.  INDIAN. 

(a)  Northern  India: 

Srinagar,  Amritsar,  Lahore,  Multan,  Agra,  Allahabad,  Mirzapur,  Zabal- 
pur,  Patna,  Jaipur. 

( b ) Southern  India: 

Madras,  Mysore,  Bangalore,  Warangal,  Malabar,  Hyderabad,  Mar- 
sulipatam. 

GROUP  VI.  CHINESE.1 

(а)  XVII  Century: 

Late  Ming  1600-1643  and  Early  Kang-hi  (1662-1700). 

(б)  XVIII  Century: 

1.  Late  Kang-hi  (1700-1722).  2.  Yung-ching  (1722-1736).  3. 

Keen-lung  (1736-1795). 

(c)  Early  and  Middle  XIX  Century. 

(■ d ) Late  XIX  Century  or  Modern. 


1 This  group  includes  both  antique  and  modern  rugs. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PERSIAN  RUGS 


N the  grouping  of  Oriental  rugs,  it  is  not 
always  desirable  to  follow  the  present  polit- 
ical divisions  of  territory,  since  great  and 
frequent  changes  in  national  boundaries  have 
occurred  without  corresponding  changes  in 
the  traditional  style  of  weaving.  Thus  it 
happens  that  with  the  rugs  made  in  Persia, 
which  is  still  called  Iran  by  its  inhabitants, 
it  is  desirable  to  group  those  made  within  that  former  Iran  that 
included  the  valley  of  Mesopotamia  on  the  west  and  part  of  Af- 
ghanistan on  the  east.  The  woven  products  of  all  this  territory 
have  characteristics  that  are  similar  to  one  another  and  that  dif- 
ferentiate them  from  those  of  other  countries.  Their  patterns  are 
distinctly  floral,  representing  leaf,  bud,  and  flower,  and  show  a 
tendency  to  naturalistic  drawing  with  graceful  and  often  intricate 
lines.  Moreover,  their  colour  schemes  of  delicate  tones  are  not 
only  beautiful  but  in  perfect  harmony.  In  marked  contrast  with 
them  are  the  rugs  of  Caucasia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Central  Asia,  which 
have  patterns  of  geometric  shape  or  highly  conventionalised  flower 
forms,  and  colours  that  often  appear  in  bold  contrast.  In  the 
Chinese  rugs,  also,  is  generally  less  harmony  of  colour,  as  well  as 
less  co-ordination  of  design,  than  in  the  Persian.  The  scroll  and 
floral  patterns  appear  on  the  field  in  isolated  figures,  or  else  imitate 
with  more  formal  drawing  the  diaper  pattern  of  some  Iranian  car- 
pets. Only  in  the  rugs  of  India  is  there  a similarity  to  the  patterns 
and  colour  tones  of  those  of  Persia;  but  the  designs  are  more  real- 
istically drawn,  less  artistically  arranged,  and  less  profuse. 

The  similarity  in  the  rugs  of  the  Persian  group  is  due  to  past 
political  influences  as  well  as  to  common  ties  of  race  and  religion. 
From  the  time  when  Ctesiphon  and  Babylon  vied  with  the  cities 
of  Persia  in  the  splendour  of  their  capitals,  all  of  this  territory  was 
repeatedly  under  one  and  the  same  dominant  power,  which  at  dif- 


COLOUR  PLATE  IV  — BERGAMO  RUG 


The  weaver  of  this  interesting  Bergamo  followed  the  early  Asia 
Minor  traditions  in  the  use  of  rich,  deep  blue  and  red  of  field  and  bor- 
der, yet  in  respect  to  pattern  showed  his  freedom  from  conventionality 
by  departing  from  types  peculiar  to  his  district  and  adopting  many 
nomadic  designs  prevalent  throughout  Anatolia.  Reciprocal  latch-hooks 
form  the  background  of  the  central  field,  on  which  are  three  upright 
panels  containing  octagonal  discs;  and  latch-hooks  surrounding  loz- 
enges and  forming  what  may  originally  have  been  intended  to  represent 
the  tree  of  life  appear  almost  as  conspicuously  in  the  border.  There  are 
also  combs,  knots  of  destiny,  and  innumerable  S-forms.  The  panels 
at  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  field  and  the  reciprocal  Vandykes 
are  most  suggestive  of  Ladiks,  but  in  the  place  of  pomegranates  at  the 
ends  of  the  upright  stalks  are  small  checquered  squares.  Bergamos  with 
such  patterns  are  now  rarely  seen. 


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PERSIAN  RUGS 


103 


ferent  times  was  held  by  Saracens,  Seljukian  Turks,  Timurids,  and 
Safavids;  and  even  after  the  end  of  the  Safavid  dynasty  the  influ- 
ence of  Nadir  Shah  was  felt  over  Mesopotamia  as  well  as  Western 
Afghanistan.  A still  stronger  influence  is  that  of  race;  for  Aryans, 
Arabs,  Armenians,  and  Turks  have  blended  with  the  early  people 
of  the  whole  territory,  until  not  only  do  all  resemble  one  another, 
but  their  craftsmanship  is  similar.  Furthermore,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a few  rapidly  disappearing  Parsees,  who  still  cling  to  the  early 
Zoroastrian  faith,  all  are  Mohammedans;  and  in  their  frequent 
pilgrimages  to  the  same  shrines  is  a constant  interchange  of  ideas 
and  exchange  of  fabrics.  It  is  true  Asia  Minor,  Caucasia,  and  India 
have  shared  to  some  extent  the  same  influences,  but  to  a much  less 
degree. 

A resemblance,  also,  exists  between  many  of  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  entire  country  that  affect  the  habits  and  industries  of  the 
people.  To  be  sure  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  that  wind  sluggishly 
through  the  great  Mesopotamian  valley,  and  the  great  ranges  of  the 
Elburz  and  Zagros,  that  extend  from  Mt.  Ararat  easterly  and  south- 
easterly through  Persia,  have  no  counterpart;  but  on  the  other  hand 
in  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  and  Western  Afghanistan  are  great  stretches 
of  sandy  wastes  where  there  is  little  vegetation,  high  tablelands 
where  during  rainless  summer  months  the  earth  is  parched,  and  little 
valleys  of  fertile  soil  that  are  watered  by  streams  from  the  encir- 
cling mountain  ridges.  Throughout  this  territory,  wherever  physi- 
cal conditions  are  similar,  the  people  follow  similar  pursuits.  In 
the  deserts  the  impoverished  Bedouins  live;  in  the  higher  lands  some 
two  millions  of  nomads  follow  their  sheep  and  goats,  pitching  their 
tents  wherever  there  is  pasture;  in  the  valleys  are  several  millions 
of  people,  who,  with  the  placid  contentment  of  the  East,  irrigate 
their  garden  patches,  fashion  simple  articles  of  metal,  and  weave 
artistic  rugs. 

A general  decadence  in  social,  political,  and  industrial  life  per- 
vades the  whole  country;  yet  due  partly  to  the  inheritance  of  a 
past  associated  with  the  glories  of  Persepolis  and  Ecbatana,  Baby- 
lon and  Nineveh,  Bagdad  and  Ctesiphon,  and  to  the  more  immedi- 
ate influence  of  the  textile  masterpieces  of  three  centuries  ago, 
rugs  are  still  produced  that  in  delicacy  of  weave,  beauty  of  design, 
and  harmony  of  colours  surpass  those  of  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  In  the  weave  of  the  best  examples  is  displayed  a technical 
skill  only  approached  by  a few  of  the  Royal  Bokharas.  In  the  fine 


104 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


rhythm  of  lines  and  in  the  colour  scheme  of  harmonious  and  delicate 
tones,  with  which  a few  of  the  best  products  of  India  alone  com- 
pare, is  united  the  touch  of  both  artist  and  artisan.  The  fields  of 
the  old  pieces  are  lavishly  covered  with  intricate  designs  of  buds 
and  blossoms  supported  by  vines  or  tendrils,  and  frequently  en- 
circled by  arabesques  that  interlace  so  as  to  form  an  harmonious 
whole.  The  fields  of  the  modern  pieces  are  frequently  of  solid  colour, 
with  central  medallions  and  triangular  corners  defined  by  graceful 
lines.  Again,  the  ground  colour  of  the  field,  which  is  either  uniform 
or  slightly  shading  from  one  end  to  the  other,  is  covered  with  real- 
istically drawn  or  conventionalised  floral  designs  that  are  arranged 
with  studied  precision,  and  are  now  and  then  relieved  by  some 
nomadic  design.  Surrounding  the  fields  are  borders  of  several  stripes, 
some  of  which  contain  an  undulating  vine  with  pendent  flowers  or 
palmettes  co-ordinate  in  drawing  and  colouring  with  the  main 
pattern.  It  is,  however,  principally  in  the  colours,  which  are  deli- 
cate yet  rich,  subdued  yet  lustrous,  that  these  rugs  surpass  all  others. 
Their  most  distinctive  tones  are  blues,  reds,  browns,  and  greens, 
so  arranged  that  the  ground  colours  of  border  and  field  generally 
contrast  yet  remain  in  perfect  harmony ; as  where  there  is  some  moss 
green  in  border  and  wine  colour  in  field,  each  being  subordinated 
to  other  superimposed  colours  representing  floral  detail. 

The  best  known  of  the  floral  patterns,  repeated  with  formal 
precision  throughout  the  field,  is  the  Herati  pattern,  which  is  of 
uncertain  antiquity  and  origin.  It  consists  of  a central  figure  that 
generally  represents  a rose,  but  sometimes  a peony  or  rosette,  about 
which  are  grouped  other  figures  like  crumpled  or  lance-shaped 
leaves.  Probably  both  the  central  and  encircling  figures  are  of 
Persian  origin,  though  the  latter  have  been  regarded  by  some  au- 
thorities as  representing  fish  and  attributed  to  Egypt  or  to  China; 
in  fact,  they  are  occasionally  drawn  so  as  distinctly  to  show  eyes 
and  fins.  Very  frequently  four  of  these  figures  are  arranged  about 
a lattice-shaped  design  with  pendants  and  a central  rosette,  as  in  Plate 
O,  Fig.  4 (Page  291).  This  Herati  or  Fish  Pattern,  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  appears  in  many  of  the  old  Persian  rugs  and  in  most  of  the 
modern  pieces,  particularly  the  Feraghans  and  Ilerats.  A less 
frequently  seen  floral  pattern,  which  has  been  used  from  a very  re- 
mote time  and  is  still  represented  in  modern  rugs,  is  the  Guli  Hinnai, 
or  Flower  of  Hinnai  (Plate  O,  Fig.  3).  Of  this  plant  Mohammed 
was  so  fond  that  he  called  it  the  “chief  of  this  world  and  the  next.” 


BUSH  I RE- 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


105 


It  occurs  as  a formal  pattern  in  many  of  the  Feraghans,  and  in 
several  other  rugs  in  which  its  bright  five-petalled  flowers  are  scat- 
tered informally  over  the  field.  Another  floral  pattern  frequently 
seen  is  the  Mina  Ivhani,  illustrated  in  Plate  O,  Fig.  2,  that  was 
named  after  Mina  Khan,  a former  Persian  ruler.  It  is  particularly 
characteristic  of  Persian  Kurdish  pieces  in  which  a dark  blue  field 
is  covered  by  a network  of  intersecting  olive-coloured  vines.  At 
the  intersections  are  placed  large  flowers  that  alternate  in  regular 
series  according  to  their  different  designs  and  colours;  and  between 
them  often  appear  other  flowers,  such  as  the  smaller  and  brighter 
coloured  Hinnai,  so  as  to  destroy  too  great  stiffness  of  design.  As 
the  flowers  are  relatively  large  and  sufficiently  separate  to  show 
the  intervening  blue  field,  this  is  one  of  the  most  effective  of  the 
formal  repetitive  floral  patterns.  A still  more  formal  pattern  (Plate 
O,  Fig.  1),  which  appeared  in  some  of  the  Persian  rugs  of  the  XVI 
and  XVII  centuries,  was  named  after  Shah  Abbas.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  it  was  suggested  by  the  Mina  Kliani  design,  to  which  it  bears 
a slight  resemblance;  but  the  principal  motive  is  so  conventionalised 
that  it  has  lost  much  of  the  floral  character.  Between  the  large  and 
formal  palmettes,  that  are  arranged  with  mathematical  precision, 
are  grouped  with  similar  regularity  smaller  palmettes,  connected 
by  angular  vines  and  leafy  branches. 

Only  a few  Persian  rugs  have  the  formal  repetitive  patterns,  such 
as  the  Ilerati,  Guli  Hinnai,  Mina  Khani,  and  Shah  Abbas.  Others 
have  the  repetitive  pattern  of  bushes,  flowers,  or  the  pear,  on  a field 
of  rich  colour.  The  remainder  have  patterns  consisting  largely  of 
scrolls,  vines,  or  tendrils,  drawn  with  exquisite  art  and  decorated 
with  leaves,  flowers,  and  buds  in  beautiful  profusion;  also  birds, 
beasts,  human  beings,  demons,  and  other  imaginary  shapes,  some- 
times associated  with  the  foliage  but  frequently  bearing  no  apparent 
relation  to  it,  appear  as  special  motives.  Since  many  of  these  forms, 
which  originated  in  the  remote  past,  have  been  transplanted  from 
one  country  to  another,  and  conventionalised  to  meet  the  new  en- 
vironment, it  is  interesting  to  observe  the  designs  in  the  different 
classes  of  rugs  and  trace  as  far  as  possible  the  influences  to  which 
they  are  due. 

IIerats.  — On  great  lines  of  travel  between  India,  Turkestan, 
and  Persia,  the  city  of  Herat  in  Northwestern  Afghanistan  for 
centuries  occupied  commercially  a most  important  position,  so 


106 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


that  its  people  long  since  became  familiar  with  the  best  fabrics  of 
the  surrounding  countries.  During  the  XV  Century  it  reached  its 
greatest  prosperity,  and  exerted  an  important  influence  on  the  art 
and  culture  of  Western  Asia.  Before  the  art  decadence  that  followed 
the  capture  of  the  city  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1731,  and  the  removal  of 
many  of  its  artisans  to  Persia,  its  looms  were  producing  some  of  the 
best  rugs  of  the  Orient,  which  excelled  in  delicacy  of  drawing  and 
in  perfect  harmony  of  colours.  The  fields  contained  patterns  of 
serrated  leaves  entwined  with  flowing  arabesques,  scrolls,  and  Chinese 
cloud-bands.  Conspicuous  among  this  tracery  were  palmettes 
and  such  flowers  as  the  lotus  and  peony,  which  were  often  most 
realistically  drawn.*  These  rugs  are  of  further  interest,  as  they  con- 
tained in  field  and  border  the  design  that,  slightly  changed,  appears 
in  many  of  the  later  rugs  of  Persia  as  the  Herati  pattern. 

The  modern  rugs  are  as  unlike  other  Afghans  as  were  the  antique 
pieces  and  show  a close  relationship  to  those  of  Persia.  Nor  is  this 
surprising,  as  the  weavers,  though  falling  far  short  of  the  high  stand- 
ards of  the  time  when  Herat  was  part  of  Persia,  are  still  mindful  of 
the  early  traditions.  Moreover,  many  of  the  rugs  are  made  across 
the  border  in  Khorassan,  and  have  the  silky  pile  peculiar  to  the  rugs 
of  that  province;  but  their  tones  of  colour,  consisting  principally 
of  red  or  blue  in  the  field,  and  light  green,  yellow,  and  ivory  in  the 
border,  as  well  as  most  of  the  patterns,  are  dissimilar.  In  one  type 
the  fields  are  covered  with  pear  designs;  but  their  bent  narrow 
ends  always  turn  in  the  same  direction,  whilst  those  of  other  rugs 
turn  in  different  directions  in  alternate  rows.  Another  type  sug- 
gests the  Feraghans,  because  their  fields  are  covered  with  the  Herati 
or  Fish  pattern;  but  the  borders  of  the  Feraghans  usually  have  the 
well-known  turtle  pattern,  while  the  borders  of  these  adhere  to  the 
traditional  Herati  design.  It  is  also  not  unusual  to  see  a large  cen- 
tral medallion,  in  which  blue  or  red  predominates,  separated  by  a 
field  of  lighter  colour  from  the  triangular  patterns  of  the  corners. 
Now  and  then,  a nomadic  influence  is  seen  in  the  small  adventi- 
tious figures  of  the  field. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  this  class  are  the 
borders,  that  generally  have  three  stripes,  of  which  the  central 

* Robert  Kerr  Porter,  a well-known  traveller,  stated  that  the  floor  of  the 
audience  hall  of  the  governor  at  Tabriz,  whom  he  visited  in  1818,  “was  entirely- 
overspread  with  Herat  carpets,  those  of  that  manufacture  being  the  richest  that 
can  be  made.” 


Plate  24.  Bijab  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


107 


consists  of  a continuous  vine  of  crumpled  leaves  so  convention- 
alised as  to  be  merely  bent,  thorny  stalks  partly  enveloping  formal 
rosettes.  The  other  stripes  are  narrow,  and  have  some  simple  undu- 
lating vine.  This  typical  border,  the  stout,  closely  woven  wTarp 
and  weft  of  cotton,  their  large,  almost  square  shapes  and  rather 
coarse  weave,  are  important  aids  in  distinguishing  this  class  from  all 
others.  Some  of  the  rugs  recently  made  are  coarse;  but  the  older 
rugs  have  excellent  dyes,  lustrous  nap,  and  matured  tones  of  well- 
blended  colours. 

Type  Characteristics  * Colours,  principally  red  and  blue  with 
minor  quantities  of  green,  yellow,  and  ivory.  Knot,  Ghiordes,  rarely 
Selina.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally,  eight  to  eleven;  perpendicularly, 
nine  to  twelve.  A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  about  as  long, 
measured  in  direction  of  length  of  rug,  as  wide.f  The  rows  of  knots 
are  firmly  pressed  down  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  at  back. 
Warp,  of  cotton,  rarely  wool;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a 
knot  is  generally  doubled  under  the  other,  sometimes  it  is  only  de- 
pressed. Weft,  wool,  occasionally  cotton;  of  coarse  diameter.  For 
a short  space  a thread  of  weft  crosses  twice,  that  is  across  and  back 
once,  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  then  three  times,  and  so 
alternates  every  several  rows.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length,  soft, 
and  silky.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes,  and  frequently  an  outer 
edging  of  uniform  colour.  Sides,  a double  overcasting.  Both  ends, 
narrow  web  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Texture,  stout  and  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  eight  to  twenty  feet.  Usual 
width,  three  fifths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Khorassans.  — Among  Iranians,  Kliorassan  is  often  spoken 
of  as  the  Land  of  the  Sun.  In  its  northern  part  are  long  ranges 
of  mountains  where  herds  and  flocks  find  excellent  pastures,  and 
intervening  valleys  where  the  soil  is  cultivated.  But  the  remainder 
of  the  province,  with  the  exception  of  scattered  oases,  where  small 
towns  and  villages  are  located,  is  almost  entirely  a desert,  from 
which  in  classic  times  the  Parthians  advanced  to  harass  the  armies 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  then  retreated  to  seek  the  protection  of  its 
vast  salt  marshes  and  inhospitable  wastes. 

* By  Type  Characteristics”  is  meant  the  characteristics  of  such  types  of 
the  class  as  are  most  frequently  seen.  There  are  exceptions  to  these  types. 

t As  this  is  the  case  with  most  rugs,  only  the  exceptions  to  this  feature  will 
be  noticed  in  the  type  characteristics  of  other  classes. 


108 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Nevertheless,  in  the  little  villages  surrounded  by  a dreary  wilder- 
ness have  been  produced  as  beautiful  rugs  as  in  those  more  favoured 
spots  where  prevailed  cultured  influences  that  could  develop  an 
Omar  Khayyam  and  produce  the  sacred  shrine  of  Meshed.  Even 
before  the.  Mongolian  invasion  several  hundred  looms,  each  employ- 
ing four  or  five  women,  were  busy  in  the  town  of  Toon  in  Central 
Khorassan.  Lying  farther  to  the  east  is  the  district  of  Kain,  which 
was  once  renowned  for  its  beautiful  rugs  of  Herati  pattern,  but  of 
later  years  has  produced  coarser  pieces  with  inferior  designs  and 
bad  colours.  Still  better  known  was  Birjand,  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  province,  where  formerly  were  woven  pieces  of  superior 
workmanship  that  contained  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
knots  to  the  square  inch.  Their  colours  were  of  delicate  shades; 
and  it  was  not  unusual  to  employ  ivory  or  other  light  tones  for  the 
ground,  with  which  was  contrasted  the  darker  tones  of  the  Herati 
or  pear  patterns.  Over  a century  ago  many  such  towns  in  Khor- 
assan were  weaving  rugs  of  artistic  design  and  beautiful  colours, 
but  as  a rule  the  present  products  fall  far  below  the  early 
standards. 

Most  of  the  Khorassans  now  seen  were  made  almost  fifty  years 
or  more  ago  and  rival  the  best  of  modern  Persian  rugs.  As  a rule, 
they  are  of  large  size  and  have  closely  woven  texture.  They  can  be 
distinguished  from  most  others  by  the  silkiness  of  their  moderately 
long  nap,  which  is  often  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  from  the  fleece  of 
a yearling  lamb  as  well  as  because  it  is  cut  long  and  unevenly. 
Another  characteristic  is  the  use  of  some  shade  of  red,  as  a pink, 
rose,  or  wine  colour.  Very  frequently  it  is  magenta  or  even  purple, 
which  are  rarely  found  in  other  Persian  rugs.  Blue  and  cream 
are  also  largely  employed.  Their  colours  are  generally  softened 
by  age,  yet  are  warm,  and  at  times  brilliant,  as  when  a large  field 
of  bright  rose  red  or  blue  surrounds  a central  medallion. 

The  diversity  of  pattern  in  Khorassans  is  partly  due  to  copying 
designs  of  rugs  brought  from  other  provinces  by  the  pilgrims  who 
yearly  visit  Meshed,  and  to  the  remoteness  from  one  another  of 
different  centres  of  weaving  in  a province  occupying  one  fourth  of 
all  Persia.  One  pattern,  however,  based  upon  the  treatment  of  the 
pear  design,  which  is  employed  in  many  of  these  pieces,  at  once 
distinguishes  them  from  rugs  of  other  districts.  It  consists  of 
large  pears  arranged  in  regular  order  on  a field  of  dark  colour  with 
their  principal  axes  inclined  diagonally  in  the  same  direction,  and 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


109 


of  two  or  three  much  smaller  pears  partly  resting  on  them  and  partly 
projecting  beyond  their  edges.  Unlike  the  pear  designs  in  other 
Persian  rugs,  which  are  oval,  these  are  elongated  like  those  of  Indian 
rugs;  and  within  them,  as  well  as  in  the  field,  are  often  small  floral 
figures.  This  distinctive  pattern  is  rendered  more  effective  by  the 
colour  scheme;  since  frequently  pears  of  red  or  magenta,  defined  by 
lines  of  yellow  and  containing  white  petalled  flowers,  rest  upon  a 
ground  of  dark  blue.  The  Ilerati  design  is  also  frequently  employed, 
and  in  very  old  pieces  are  occasionally  represented  birds  and  animals 
naturalistically  drawn.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  a central  medallion 
or  large  vase  of  flowers  surrounded  by  a field  of  bright  uniform 
colour,  and  in  some  rugs  are  two  medallions.  When  the  centre 
contains  a medallion,  the  triangular-shaped  corners  are  set  off  by 
lines  that  are  much  simpler  than  those  in  Sarouks  and  Kermanshahs. 

Few  other  rugs  have  more  noticeable  borders;  for  not  only  are 
they  very  wide,  but  in  the  main  stripe,  which  is  as  wide  as  several 
guard  stripes,  is  some  characteristic  pattern.  Occasionally  it  con- 
tains the  Herati  design,  but  more  frequently  it  consists  of  a heavy 
undulating  vine  with  incipient  flower  forms,  that  at  times  almost 
assume  the  appearance  of  a bird’s  head  resting  on  a sub-pattern 
of  double  floral  vine.  This  stripe,  illustrated  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  2, 
(opp.  Page  156)  is  so  frequently  met  with  in  Khorassans  as  to  be 
characteristic  of  them.  The  narrow  guard  stripes  usually  contain 
some  simple  vine  or  ornate  reciprocal  figure. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  rose,  blue,  and  ivory, 
with  minor  quantities  of  yellow  and  green.  Knot,  Selma.  Many 
are  “left-hand.”  Knots  to  inch  horizontally,  eight  to  thirteen; 
perpendicularly,  twelve  to  twenty.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly 
pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  and  the  weft  is  partly 
hidden  at  back.  Warp,  cotton;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled 
by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other.  A few  short  lengths  of  threads 
of  warp  hang  loose  at  the  back  of  some  pieces.  Weft,  almost  always 
cotton,  occasionally  wool  of  fine  diameter  and  usually  dyed  blue. 
A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  two  rows  of  knots,  excepting 
at  intervals  of  every  six  or  eight  rows  of  knots,  where  it  crosses  three 
or  more  times.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length,  silky  and  unevenly 
clipped.  Border,  three  to  six  stripes,  and  generally  an  outer  edging  of 
uniform  colour.  Sides,  a double  overcasting  of  same  colour  as  edging. 
Both  ends,  a narrow  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture,  mod- 
erately firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  fine  grain.  Usual 


110  ORIENTAL  RUGS 

length,  five  to  twelve  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three 
quarters  length. 

Mesheds.  — In  few  parts  of  the  East  have  the  weavers  received 
greater  inspiration  from  sacred  and  historic  association  than  those 
of  Meshed.  To  Shiite  Mohammedans  it  contains  the  most  holy 
spot  in  Persia;  for  within  a mosque  resplendent  with  facade  of  blue 
and  white  tiles,  and  with  gilded  minarets  of  exquisite  design,  lie  the 
remains  of  Ali  Riza,  the  eighth  Imam  or  Moslem  priest,  in  a tomb 
that  is  viewed  yearly  by  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  pilgrims. 
It  was  for  a short  time  the  capital  of  Shah  Abbas,  who  beautified 
its  mosques;  and  here  Nadir  Shah,  whose  remains  lie  in  the  mauso- 
leum, held  his  court  after  the  capture  of  Delhi.  Within  its  walls 
was  born  Firdousi,  the  Homer  of  Persia;  and  not  far  away,  among 
the  mountains  to  the  west,  was  the  home  of  the  poet  and  astrono- 
mer, Omar  Khayyam.  Not  only  devotees  but  large  numbers  of 
merchants  regularly  visit  the  city  in  the  caravans  from  Khiva, 
Bokhara,  Herat,  Yezd,  and  Teheran,  so  that  it  is  also  a city  of 
commercial  importance. 

It  is  possible  that  a few  of  those  matchless  pieces  which  were 
attributed  to  Herat  before  its  destruction  by  Nadir  Shah  were 
made  in  the  district  near  Meshed,  since  according  to  an  Arabian 
traveller  * who  visited  it  during  the  XIV  Century  many  fine  carpets 
then  lay  on  the  floor  of  its  mosque.  It  is  also  believed  that  within 
the  shrine,  which  has  never  been  entered  by  an  unbeliever,  still 
remain  some  of  the  most  magnificent  carpets  of  the  Orient.  But  for 
more  than  a century  the  textile  industry  has  been  declining,  and 
the  rugs  now  seen  are  generally  of  recent  manufacture. 

As  a rule,  these  rugs  are  of  the  Khorassan  type,  and  have  the 
same  silky  appearance  of  nap,  though  it  is  shorter  and  more  evenly 
clipped.  The  pattern,  however,  is  generally  different,  as  seldom  is 
the  field  completely  covered  with  the  pear  design,  but  whenever 
used,  it  is  of  elaborate  drawing  and  frequently  very  large.  Nor 
is  the  characteristic  Khorassan  border  stripe,  illustrated  in  Plate  E, 
Fig.  2 (opp.  Page  15G),  employed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  usual 
to  see  large  central  medallions,  with  floral  designs  in  tones  of  rose  or 
pink  on  fields  of  blue  or  ivory,  and  borders  with  undulating  floral 
vines,  in  which  appears  evidence  of  Herati  influence.  Most  of  the  rugs 
that  now  exist  were  made  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  are  of  large 

* Ibn  Batutah. 


mmMm 


Plate  2.5.  Kermanshah  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


111 


size  and  almost  square  shape.  The  colour  scheme  inclines  to  light  and 
often  brilliant  tones,  which  at  times  are  strongly  contrasted  with 
small  masses  of  much  darker  shades.  The  wool  is  excellent,  and  the 
warp  and  weft  are  rarely  coarse. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  rose  or  pink,  blue 
and  white,  with  minor  quantities  of  yellow  and  green.  Knot,  gen- 
erally Selina,  rarely  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally,  eight 
to  fifteen;  perpendicularly,  twelve  to  seventeen.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  and  the  weft  is 
partly  hidden  at  back.  Warp,  generally  cotton,  occasionally  wool; 
one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other. 
Weft,  wool  or  cotton,  of  fine  diameter  and  usually  dyed  blue.  A 
thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile, 
wool  of  fine  quality  and  medium  length.  Border,  usually  from  three 
to  six  stripes,  occasionally  as  many  as  eight,  and  generally  an  outer 
edging  of  uniform  colour.  Sides,  a double  overcasting  of  same  colour 
as  edging.  Lower  end,  a narrow  web  and  warp  fringe.  Upper  end, 
a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave  at  back 
is  of  slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  six  to  fourteen  feet.  Usual 
width,  two  thirds  to  seven  eighths  length. 

Ispahans.  — Still  imposing  in  the  ruins  of  its  former  splendour, 
surrounded  by  orchards,  vineyards,  and  groves  of  trees  that  shade 
a broad,  well-watered  plain,  is  the  ancient  city  of  Ispahan.  Under 
the  Caliphs  it  became  the  capital  of  Persia;  and  though  sacked  by 
Tamerlane,  who  slew  seventy  thousand  of  its  inhabitants,  it  rose 
to  such  importance  that  in  the  XVII  Century  it  contained  within 
its  walls  several  palaces,  one  hundred  and  sixty  mosques,  over  two 
score  of  colleges,  nearly  two  thousand  caravansaries,  and  about 
three  quarters  of  a million  people.  Now  the  population  has  dwindled 
to  about  sixty  thousand;  and  the  few  stately  mosques  and  colleges 
that  remain  amid  miles  of  deserted  streets,  abandoned  bazaars, 
and  ruined  homes  but  feebly  reflect  the  magnificence  of  the  former 
capital. 

Here  was  the  royal  court  of  Shah  Abbas,  who  sent  to  Italy, 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  decorative  art,  a number  of  the  most 
experienced  artisans,  to  whom  are  accredited  some  of  the  gracefully 
drawn  designs  of  many  of  the  early  carpets.  Here,  in  the  days  of  its 
greatest  prosperity,  were  founded  many  industries,  and  on  its  looms 
were  undoubtedly  woven  some  of  the  best  of  old  Persian  carpets. 


112 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Though  Herat  is  now  regarded  by  some  authorities  as  the  centre 
where  the  so-called  Ispahan  rugs  were  made,  it  is  improbable,  as 
previously  pointed  out,  that  all  of  them  came  from  there.  But 
after  the  death  of  Shah  Abbas  the  rug  industry  began  to  decline; 
and  with  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  Shiraz,  in  1760,  Ispahan  ceased 
to  be  a rug-producing  centre  of  consequence.  There  may  be  a doubt 
whether  such  enormous  carpets,  as  the  one  with  length  of  sixty 
feet  and  breadth  of  thirty  that  Sir  Purdon  Clark  in  his  monograph 
on  Oriental  Carpets  mentions  as  lying  in  the  hall  of  Chehel  Sutoon 
at  Ispahan,  were  made  there  or  were  imported  from  other  cities; 
but  the  weaving  of  rugs  has  never  entirely  ceased;  and  so  great 
is  the  fame  of  the  former  glory  of  the  city  that  even  now  Oriental 
dealers  will  often  apply  to  rugs  the  term  “ Ispahan  ” as  an  epithet  of 
superiority. 

The  few  modern  pieces  which  reach  the  western  markets  bear 
little  resemblance  to  their  prototypes;  and  even  among  themselves 
show  little  similarity  of  pattern,  though  the  pear  and  Herati  designs 
are  not  uncommon.  In  some  rugs  a century  old  the  field  is  almost 
covered  with  what  is  known  as  the  Persian  crown  jewel,  and  in  others 
the  field  contains  diamond-shaped  medallions  arranged  in  regular 
order  with  small  foliate  and  floral  forms  placed  between  them. 
Small  figures  of  animals  are  also  occasionally  represented.  The 
border  is  generally  narrow  and  lacking  in  impressive  individuality, 
so  that  the  character  of  the  rugs  depends  largely  on  the  pattern  of 
the  field  and  the  well-seasoned  colours,  which  are  always  rich  and 
harmonious.  Some  shade  of  red  or  blue  is  usually  chosen  for  the 
ground;  and  in  the  designs  are  green,  yellow,  and  white.  The 
weave  has  variations  rarely  found  in  other  rugs;  for  the  warp,  which 
is  usually  cotton,  may  also  be  wool,  or  wool  and  cotton  twisted  to- 
gether; and  the  weft  may  likewise  be  wool  or  cotton,  and  may 
cross  between  the  rows  of  knots  either  once  or  twice  in  different  rugs, 
or  even  once  or  twice  in  the  same  rug. 

Type  Characteristics .*  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  with 
minor  quantities  of  green  and  yellow.  Knot,  Gliiordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  fourteen. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down.  Warp,  usually  cotton, 
occasionally  wool ; in  a few  pieces  wool  or  cotton  are  twisted  together. 
Each  thread  of  warp  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool  or 
cotton.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  once  or  twice  between  two  rows  of 

* Of  modern  Ispakans. 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


113 


knots.  If  it  is  wool,  it  generally  crosses  twice;  if  of  cotton,  two 
threads  are  generally  placed  side  by  side  and  cross  together  once  as 
a single  thread.  Pile,  wool,  of  short  or  medium  length.  Sides,  a 
double  selvage  of  two  or  three  chords.  Loieer  end,  a web.  Upper  end, 
a web  and  fringe.  Occasionally  the  web  is  turned  back  and  hemmed. 
Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  moderately  coarse.  Usual  length, 
six  to  fourteen  feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  tliiids  length. 

Kirmans.  — On  account  of  the  isolated  position  of  Kirman  in 
Southeastern  Persia,  where  the  almost  impassable  saline  and  sandy 
deserts  by  which  it  is  surrounded  on  the  north  and  east,  and  the 
mountain  ridges  that  separate  it  from  the  fertile  valleys  of  Persia 
on  the  west,  in  a measure  protected  it  from  the  repeated  invasions 
that  disturbed  the  political  and  industrial  conditions  of  Northern 
Persia,  it  has  continuously  for  over  a thousand  years  been  an  impor- 
tant centre  for  the  manufacture  of  rugs.  Moreover,  during  all  this 
period  it  has  been  noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  quality.  As 
early  as  the  Mohammedan  conquests  its  fabrics  were  taken  to  fur- 
nish the  floors  and  divans  of  Caliphs’  palaces.  When  Marco  Polo 
visited  Persia  in  1270  he  wrote  of  the  beautiful  shawls  and  carpets 
made  by  the  women  of  Kirman;  and  the  noted  French  traveller 
Chardin,  who  lived  in  that  country  during  part  of  the  XVII  Century, 
also  spoke  most  favourably  of  them.  Even  after  Nadir  Shah  removed 
many  of  the  most  skilled  weavers  to  the  northern  part  of  Persia  sub- 
sequent to  ascending  the  throne  in  1739,  and  Aga  Mohammed 
Khan  pillaged  the  city  and  massacred  many  of  the  inhabitants  in 
, 1794,  the  rug  industry  continued  to  prosper,  and  to-day  that  dis- 
trict is  producing  the  best  of  modern  pieces. 

To  this  isolation  is  also  largely  due  the  excellence  of  the  weave 
and  dyes,  since  the  artisans  have  in  a measure  escaped  the  perni- 
cious influences  of  market  demands  and  aniline  colours.  And  to 
it  must  be  attributed  the  fact  that  the  old  Iranian  textile  art  appears 
nowhere  else  in  greater  purity;  for  of  all  the  rugs  on  the  market 
to-day  these  conform  more  nearly  in  texture,  colour,  and  design  to 
the  masterpieces  of  earlier  times,  and  show  none  of  the  foreign 
influences  appearing  in  pieces  woven  in  the  north.  And  yet  in 
Kirman  is  complexity  of  race  as  well  as  religion;  for  the  Beluches 
who  have  wandered  across  the  desert  mingle  with  the  Persians; 
and  the  Guebres,  still  practising  in  secret  their  fire  wTorship,  meet 
with  the  Mohammedans. 


114 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


For  long  ages  silkworms  have  been  cultivated  in  the  district 
about  Kirman  and  fed  on  the  mulberry  trees  that  grow  wild  among 
its  hills,  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  that  small  quantities  of  silk  are 
sometimes  used  in  the  rugs;  but  as  a rule  the  pile  is  entirely  of  wool, 
yet  of  such  fine  quality  and  so  well  woven  that  many  of  the  old  pieces 
have  a lustrous  and  silky  appearance.  This  wool,  which  is  white 
and  of  unusually  fine  texture,  is  partly  the  product  of  the  native 
sheep  and  partly  the  product  of  a variety  of  goats  that  live  among 
the  ridges  and  yield  fleeces  almost  as  fine  as  those  of  Kashmir. 

It  is  probably  because  of  the  fondness  of  the  people  of  Kirman 
for  roses,  which  they  cultivate  for  the  attar,  that  they  depict  them 
so  profusely  in  their  rugs.  Sometimes  they  represent  them  as  filling 
vases  set  in  rows,  or  again  as  formal  bouquets  arranged  in  regular 
order  upon  the  field.  They  also  weave  them  in  the  borders  among 
green  leaves,  as  placed  there  tenderly  and  not  hanging  from  such 
stiffly  formed  vines  as  are  seen  in  other  Persian  rugs.  Nor  are  they 
conventionalised  like  the  flowers  of  most  modern  rugs;  but  petal, 
leaf,  and  stem  are  drawn  with  a precision  that  suggests  the  work 
of  Indian  weavers.  Usually  they  are  red  contrasting  with  a ground 
colour  of  soft,  ashy  grey  in  the  field,  and  of  golden  yellow  in  the  rich, 
harmonious  border.  Sometimes,  instead  of  a profusion  of  roses, 
there  are  other  flowers,  such  as  the  sunflower,  suggesting  the  old 
Zoroastrian  faith,  the  cypress,  or  the  sacred  “cocos.”  Again,  the 
general  design  may  be  modified  from  one  strictly  floral,  and  amid  the 
foliage  may  be  introduced  birds,  animals,  or  human  beings;  but 
the  naturalistic  drawing  is  always  noticeable.  In  modern  pieces  the 
central  medallion  is  often  adopted,  yet  the  general  resemblance  to 
older  pieces  is  evident.  As  a rule  the  border  has  five  stripes,  of 
which  the  main  one  is  twice  the  width  of  any  other,  and  surrounding 
the  outer  is  a narrow  edging  that  is  usually  pinkish  red;  though 
now  and  then,  according  to  the  general  colour  scheme,  a very  pleasing 
effect  is  obtained  by  substituting  an  edging  of  moss  green. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  grey  or  ivory,  with 
minor  quantities  of  faun,  yellow,  rose,  and  blue.  Knot,  Sehna. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  eleven  to  twenty;  perpendicularly,  eleven 
to  twenty.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down  so  that  the  warp 
is  concealed  and  the  weft  is  partly  hidden  at  back.  Warp,  cotton; 
one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  knot  is  doubled  under  the  other. 
Weft,  generally  wool  of  fine  diameter,  occasionally  cotton,  and  fre- 
quently dyed  blue.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 


Plate  26.  Kurdistan  Rug  with  Mina  Khani  Pattern 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


115 


two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  short,  soft,  and  silky.  Border, 
usually  of  five  stripes  and  an  outer  edging  of  uniform  colour  that  is 
generally  pink  but  sometimes  green.  Sides,  a double  overcasting 
of  the  same  colour  as  edging.  Both  ends,  a narrow  web  and  short 
warp  fringe.  Texture,  very  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately 
fine  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  seven  feet.  Usual  ividth,  three  fifths 
to  two  thirds  length. 

Yezd.  — In  the  centre  of  a sandy  plain,  midway  between  Kir- 
man  and  Kashan,  is  the  city  of  Yezd,  where  almost  the  last  of  the 
Iranian  fire-worshippers,  now  a small  part  of  the  total  population, 
still  follow  the  ancient  faith.  Though  partly  shut  off  from  the 
great  desert  of  Khorassan  by  a mountain  range,  the  city  is  only 
an  oasis,  where  the  drifting  sands  that  buried  the  old  city  ever 
suggest  to  the  inhabitants  the  dread  spirit  of  desolation  which 
finds  an  echo  in  ruined  walls  within.  At  the  present  time  very 
few  piled  rugs  are  woven  there  and  they  are  rarely  seen  in 
Western  markets;  yet  on  account  of  the  historic  interest  in  its 
people,  the  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  modern  products  made 
in  other  districts.  At  one  time  it  was  noted  for  its  silk  rugs,  and 
also  for  its  felt  “namads,”  which  are  generally  too  heavy  to  be 
transported,  since  some  of  them  have  a thickness  of  two  inches  and 
a superficial  area  of  ten  thousand  square  feet. 

Shiraz.  — Near  the  centre  of  a small,  well -cultivated  valley 
encircled  by  mountains  is  Shiraz,  capital  of  Farsistan.  During 
the  reign  of  Kerim  Khan,  from  1700  to  1779,  it  was  the  capital 
of  Persia;  but  since  then  it  has  suffered  from  earthquakes  and 
neglecfsuntil  now  much  of  its  former  glory  has  departed.  And 
yet  there  still  remain  associations  to  kindle  the  imagination,  for 
without  the  gates  are  the  gardens  that  Persian  poets  have  extolled 
in  verse;  the  tombs  of  Saadi  and  Hafiz;  and  not  far  away  are  the 
spots  where  Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Xerxes  lived,  and  the  ruined  palaces 
that  Alexander  destroyed  in  a night  of  drunken  revelry. 

As  early  as  the  time  of  the  Caliphs  this  district  produced 
large  numbers  of  carpets;  though  few,  if  any,  remain  that  were 
woven  before  the  XV  Century.  As  is  the  case  with  modern 
pieces,  all  of  them  were  distinguished  for  their  soft  and  beautiful 
wool,  which  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  climate  and  pasture  of  the 
surrounding  mountains  and  valleys.  One  of  the  oldest  existing 


116 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


rugs  of  this  district  which  displays  the  characteristic  wool  is 
referred  to  by  Dr.  F.  R.  Martin  in  the  following  words:*  “As 
soon  as  I had  touched  it,  I was  certain  that  we  had  to  deal  with 
a very  rare  kind  of  carpets  which  were  made  at  Shiraz,  or  at 
least  with  the  brilliant  Shiraz  wool.  Most  of  the  carpets  made 
of  that  wool  are  lost,  because  the  material  was  such  a soft  one 
that  it  was  easily  worn  out.  I know  of  very  few  which  are  older 
than  the  eighteenth  century.  No  wool  in  all  Persia  takes  such 
rich  and  deep  colour  as  the  Shiraz  wool.  The  deep  blue  and  the 
dark  ruby  red  are  equally  extraordinary,  and  that  is  due  to  the 
brilliancy  of  the  wool,  which  is  firmer  and,  so  to  say,  more  trans- 
parent than  silk,  and  makes  one  think  of  translucent  enamel. 
As  a piece  of  colour  this  carpet  is  certainly  one  of  the  finest, 
and  there  are  very  few  carpets  that  have  greater  charm,  wdiich 
even  the  best  reproduction  could  not  give.  In  its  colours  there 
is  something  of  an  early  Gothic  stained-glass  window,  where  the 
dust  of  ages  has  so  covered  the  design  that  it  has  become  ob- 
scured and  the  imagination  of  the  spectator  must  complete  it. 
Certainly  the  Persians  for  whom  this  carpet  was  made  used  to 
sit  and  dream  for  hours  over  the  beauty  of  its  colours,  beautiful 
as  the  wonderful  landscape  surrounding  Shiraz.” 

On  account  of  the  design  and  workmanship  of  this  remark- 
able piece  it  is  referred  by  Dr.  Martin  to  the  XV  Century.  Dur- 
ing the  two  following  centuries  the  carpets  of  Shiraz  attained  the 
high  standard  of  excellence  prevalent  in  the  principal  cities  of 
Persia;  but  most  of  those  pieces  are  now  extremely  rare,  as  they 
were  woven  chiefly  for  imperial  use  or  for  exchange  with  foreign 
rulers.  This  city  experienced  the  art  decadence  that  began  with 
the  XVIII  Century,  yet  under  the  patronage  of  Kerim  Khan  im- 
perial factories  for  weaving  were  again  established  there. 

Though  some  of  the  rugs  made  eighty  or  even  sixty  years 
ago  are  certainly  beautiful,  these  modern  pieces,  as  a rule,  lack 
the  excellent  qualities  of  early  rugs,  and  those  more  recently 
woven  are  still  poorer.  On  a few  of  them  are  depicted  designs 
that  are  strictly  Persian;  but  they  generally  depart  widely 
from  the  early  traditions,  and  floral  forms  are  very  much  con- 
ventionalised. In  a large  number  of  this  class  the  field  is 
covered  with  pear  designs  which  are  described  by  straight  lines 
and  angles.  Sometimes  they  are  as  small  as  in  the  Sarabends, 
* “Burlington  Magazine,”  December,  1909. 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


117 


occupying  the  whole  field  as  the  principal  motive;  or  they  may 
be  placed  less  prominently  within  diagonal  or  perpendicular 
stripes.  Again,  they  may  be  as  large  as  in  Kliorassans  and  grouped 
with  other  designs.  Another  very  common  pattern,  known  as  the 
“pole-medallion,”  consists  of  a narrow  perpendicular  bar  connecting 
two  or  more  large  diamond-shaped  figures  on  which  are  grouped 
conventionalised  floral  forms  and  geometric  designs.  In  other 
pieces  the  pattern  is  as  geometric  as  that  of  any  Caucasian  rug, 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  both  field  and  border  profusely  adorned 
with  latch-hooks  enclosed  within  and  surrounding  geometric  figures. 
Nor  is  it  unusual  to  see  small  figures  of  men  and  animals  scattered 
through  the  field.  Indeed,  there  is  no  other  Persian  rug  in  which  the 
pattern  is  so  heterogeneous.  The  borders  usually  consist  of  a num- 
ber of  narrow  stripes,  or  a wide  one  with  narrow  guard  stripes.  One 
of  them,  at  least,  almost  invariably  contains  some  form  of  vine 
and  leaves,  and  not  infrequently  the  row  of  small  X figures  that 
also  appear  in  Shirvans.  In  fact,  the  rugs  are  sometimes  mistaken 
for  Shirvans  on  account  of  the  resemblance  in  geometric  designs. 

Though  there  is  such  variety  in  the  patterns,  these  rugs  are  not 
difficult  to  recognise.  There  is  something  distinctive  about  the  dark 
blues  and  reds  contrasted  with  smaller  areas  of  ivory  and  yellow. 
They  are,  as  a rule,  loosely  woven,  and  many  of  them  have  a trait  of 
lying  unevenly  on  the  floor.  Not  infrequently  an  extra  band  of  pile 
is  woven  between  the  border  and  the  broad  embroidered  webs  of  the 
ends,  from  which  hang  a loose  fringe.  The  sides  are  overcast  with 
heavy  strands  of  wool  varied  like  a barber-pole  at  regular  intervals; 
and,  as  is  not  the  case  with  any  other  class,  they  are  often  orna- 
mented at  intervals  with  coloured  tassels. 

There  are  also  large  numbers  of  Shiraz  saddle-bags,  which  are 
superior  to  any  others  made.  They  resemble  the  Caucasian,  as  the 
patterns  are  geometric;  but  they  may  be  distinguished  from  them 
by  the  finer  wool  and  a slightly  different  colour  scheme. 

Not  infrequently  the  term  “Mecca”  is  applied  to  Shiraz  rugs, 
and  the  impression  is  conveyed  that  they  were  made  there.  Nor 
is  the  statement  always  entirely  devoid  of  truth;  for  each  year 
caravans  aggregating  some  two  hundred  thousand  souls  enter 
that  city  to  make  their  devotions  to  Allah,  to  walk  around  the 
sacred  stone  within  the  Kaaba,  and  leaving  behind  their  forgotten 
sins  to  return  homeward  with  a bit  of  sacred  earth  or  a strip  of  the 
temple’s  covering.  Each  of  these  pilgrims  bears  offerings  for  propi- 


118 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


tiation,  of  which  a large  proportion  are  rugs;  and  whatever  their 
size,  they  are  invariably  the  choicest  the  devotee  can  offer.  Since 
the  Mohammedan  priests  regard  the  best  interests  of  their  religion 
and  themselves  as  conserved  by  a disposition  of  all  articles  not 
directly  available  for  their  use,  they  sell  large  quantities  of  such 
rugs,  that  find  their  way  to  Cairo,  Damascus,  and  Constantinople. 
Furthermore,  the  pilgrims  carry  many  pieces  which  are  sold  or  ex- 
changed along  the  routes  of  the  caravans  or  at  Mecca,  and  ultimately 
reach  the  same  markets.  Such  a large  number  of  the  pieces  that 
years  ago  came  from  these  sources  were  of  the  well-known  type 
of  Shiraz  rugs  that  they  and  similar  pieces  which  had  never  left 
Persia  were  called  Mecca  rugs.  This  deception  is  still  encouraged 
by  some  dealers,  because  for  many  buyers  a special  interest  is  at- 
tached to  a piece  that  they  are  persuaded  has  been  carried  on  this 
pilgrimage  as  an  offering. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  ivory, 
with  minor  quantities  of  yellow  and  green.  Knot,  generally  Selina, 
frequently  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  twelve; 
perpendicularly,  eight  to  twelve.  At  back  one  of  the  half  knots 
is  generally  smaller  than  the  other  and  pressed  to  one  side.  The 
other  half  knot  is  about  as  long  as  wide,  and  the  yarn  is  not  drawn 
tight  against  the  warp.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so 
that  their  alignment  is  slightly  irregular,  and  the  warp  is  concealed 
at  back.  Warp,  almost  always  wool;  in  a few  modern  rugs  goats’ 
hair  is  used.  Each  of  the  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  almost 
equally  prominent  at  back,  or  occasionally  one  to  each  knot  is  de- 
pressed. Weft,  wool  of  medium  diameter,  frequently  coloured  red. 
A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots. 
Pile,  wool,  short  to  medium,  and  silky.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes. 
Beyond  the  borders,  at  each  end,  is  frequently  a narrow  band  of  pile. 
Sides,  a heavy  double  overcasting  in  a barber-pole  stripe  or  in  short 
lengths  of  different  colours,  which  generally  consist  of  two  of  the 
following  colours:  red,  yellow,  green,  and  blue.  In  some  pieces 
small  tufts  of  wool  protrude  from  the  sides  at  regular  intervals  of 
one  or  more  feet.  Lower  end,  a broad  web  of  coloured  stripes, 
through  which  may  run  a dovetailed  coloured  cord,  and  warp 
loops.  Upper  end,  a broad  web  of  coloured  stripes,  through  which 
may  run  a dovetailed  coloured  cord,  and  warp  fringe.  Texture, 
loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  five 
to  nine  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  four  fifths  length. 


Plate  27.  Gorevan  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


119 


Niris.  — A resemblance  exists  between  the  rugs  that  take  their 
name  from  Lake  Niris  and  those  of  Shiraz,  which  is  distant  only 
fifty  miles  to  the  westward;  for  many  of  each  class  are  woven  with 
the  same  silky  wool,  obtained  from  sheep  that  graze  in  the  inter- 
vening mountain  ranges,  and  the  shepherd  weavers  about  the  lake 
have  acquired  ideas  from  the  old  capital.  This  resemblance  exists 
mostly  in  the  soft,  floccy  appearance  of  the  nap,  and  in  the  barber- 
pole  or  parti-coloured  overcasting  of  the  sides.  The  webs  of  each 
end  are  broad  and  have  long  fringes ; but  generally  those  of  the  Shiraz 
are  embroidered  and  crossed  with  one  or  more  parti-coloured  cords, 
whilst  those  of  Niris  pieces  are,  as  a rule,  flatly  woven  in  stripes  of 
different  colours.  There  is  also  an  occasional  resemblance  in  pat- 
tern, but  the  best  known  pattern  of  the  Niris  is  rarely  seen  in  the 
Shiraz.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  more  firmly  woven;  and  there 
is  a slight  difference  in  the  character  of  their  weave,  since  one  of  the 
two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the  other, 
and  the  weft  is  of  wool  coloured  red,  whereas  in  the  Shiraz  it  is  fre- 
quently of  cotton. 

The  pears  are  the  favourite  design,  and,  like  those  in  Sarabends, 
extend  over  the  field  in  orderly  array;  but  they  are  much  larger  and 
consist  of  an  assemblage  of  bright  colours  isolated  from  one  another, 
yet  grouped  gracefully  in  a way  that  might  readily  suggest  the 
origin  of  crown  jewels  sometimes  ascribed  to  them.  Frequently 
the  ground  is  a dark  blue,  and  the  pears  are  of  red,  blue,  green,  and 
ivory.  Violet  and  yellow  are  also  employed.  In  other  types,  less 
usually  seen,  the  field  is  covered  with  a lattice-work  pattern  con- 
taining small  figures.  The  typical  border  has  a broad  central  stripe 
of  vine  and  flower,  with  narrow  guards  of  simpler  vine  or  reciprocal 
trefoil.  Barber-pole  stripes  are  also  characteristic  of  the  borders. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  yellow, 
green,  and  ivory.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally 
six  to  eleven;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  fifteen.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  not  closely  pressed  down,  so  that  at  the  back  the  warp  is  notice- 
able and  the  weft  conspicuous.  Warp,  wool;  one  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the  other  at  back  and  fre- 
quently doubled  under  the  other.  Weft,  wool  of  medium  diameter, 
generally  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length.  Border,  generally 
of  three  stripes,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven.  Sides,  a heavy  double 
overcasting  in  a barber-pole  stripe  or  in  short  lengths  of  different 


120 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


colours,  such  as  red,  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  black.  Both  ends, 
a broad  web  of  coloured  stripes,  one  row  of  knots,  and  loose  warp 
fringe.  Texture,  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse  grain. 
Usual  length,  four  to  seven  feet.  Usual  width,  three  quarters  to 
four  fifths  length. 

Feraghans.  — Stretching  eastward  from  the  base  of  Mt.  Ehvund 
is  the  plain  of  Feraghan.  Its  length  does  not  exceed  forty-five  miles, 
nor  its  breadth  ten  or  fifteen,  yet  here  are  clustered  several  hun- 
dred villages.  On  account  of  its  altitude  of  seven  thousand  feet, 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  in  winter,  and  the  people  are 
then  huddled  in  their  low  mud  houses,  and  the  flocks  and 
herds  are  gathered  within  the  village  walls.  But  in  the  spring 
the  men  are  cultivating  the  fields,  and  the  sheep  are  grazing  on 
the  banks  of  numerous  streams.  It  is  a plain  of  fertility  and 
industry.  For  generations  it  has  been  productive  of  large  numbers 
of  fine  rugs,  and  it  is  still  possible  among  its  villages  to  find  some 
of  those  old  pieces  that  have  been  regarded  by  the  Persians  them- 
selves as  the  best  examples  of  the  textile  art. 

When  the  characteristic  patterns  of  Feraghans  have  once  been 
carefully  observed,  they  are  never  forgotten;  yet  it  is  surprising 
to  note  the  many  distinctions  observable  in  a large  collection.  These 
patterns  may  conveniently  be  divided  into  two  groups,  namely:  one 
in  which  the  field  is  entirely  covered  with  diaper  designs,  and  the 
other  in  which  the  field  contains  a central  medallion  surrounded  by 
uniform  colour.  Probably  nine  tenths  of  these  rugs  fall  within  the 
first  group,  which  is  divisible  into  three  sub-groups:  those  in  which 
the  field  is  covered  with  the  Herati  design;  those  in  which  the  field 
is  covered  with  the  Guli  Hinnai  design;  and  those  in  which  the  field 
is  covered  with  some  other  small  diaper  design. 

The  Ilerati  design  is  the  one  most  frequently  seen,  and  is  found 
in  the  very  oldest  of  existing  Feraghans.  As  a rule,  the  crumpled 
leaf  does  not  exceed  a length  of  four  or  five  inches,  and  the  rosettes 
are  proportionally  small,  so  that  the  ground  colour  is  almost  entirely 
concealed,  and  at  a short  distance  is  not  distinguishable;  but  there 
are  other  pieces  in  which  the  leaf  is  over  a foot  in  length,  and  the 
figures  less  closely  clustered,  so  that  the  ground  enters  promi- 
nently into  the  colour  scheme.  The  prevailing  colour  of  the  leaf  and 
rosette  is  generally  rose  red,  which  gives  a distinctly  reddish  tone 
to  the  rug;  though  the  small  designs  have  shades  of  green,  yellow. 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


121 


white,  and  light  blue.  The  ground  is  usually  a rich,  dark  blue; 
but  occasionally  red  or  even  ivory  is  used.  In  very  few  other  rugs 
are  the  corners  separated  from  the  field,  unless  there  is  a central 
medallion;  but  in  almost  all  Feraghans  small  triangular-shaped 
corners,  with  colours  contrasting  with  those  of  the  field,  are  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  lines  bearing  teeth  or  serrated  edges. 

Surrounding  the  field  is  a border  that  has  from  five  to  seven 
stripes.  The  main  stripe  is  about  three  times  as  wide  as  any  other, 
and  may  have  a ground  colour  of  red,  blue,  or  ivory  white;  but 
in  many  of  the  best  pieces  it  is  moss  green,  with  blue,  yellow,  or  red 
appearing  in  the  overlying  pattern.  Of  different  but  corresponding 
shades  is  the  colour  of  the  ground  and  designs  of  other  stripes. 
Probably  three  fourths  of  the  Feraghans  now  seen  have  the  well- 
known  turtle  design  in  the  main  stripe;  but  it  is  sometimes  replaced 
by  the  rose  design  shown  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  12  (opp.  Page  156),  or  by  an 
undulating  vine  with  rosette  or  palmettes.  On  the  innermost  stripe, 
which  is  very  narrow,  is  invariably  represented  some  reciprocal  figure, 
as  the  trefoil  or  sawtooth;  and  on  the  other  stripes  are  undulating 
vines,  with  floral  or  quasi-floral  figures. 

The  Feraghans  with  fields  covered  with  Guli  Hinnai  designs 
instead  of  the  Herati  show  a difference  in  both  drawing  and  colour- 
ing, though  the  general  effect  is  much  the  same.  In  place  of  crumpled 
leaves  and  rosettes  of  reddish  hue  are  the  star-like  flowers  of  the 
Hinnai  plants  that  brighten  the  mountains  surrounding  the  Fera- 
ghan  plain  with  their  large  yellow  or  ivory  coloured  petals.  The 
pattern,  as  a whole,  is  slightly  more  prominent,  and  the  prevailing 
colour  tone,  which  is  rich,  is  less  red  and  more  yellow.  There  is, 
however,  a very  noticeable  difference  in  the  pattern  of  the  third 
sub-group,  though  specimens  are  not  frequently  seen.  In  these  the 
small  figures  of  conventionalised  flowers  sometimes  have  geometric 
shapes  and  are  arranged  in  diagonal  or  perpendicular  rows.  More- 
over, they  generally  lack  the  rich  colouring  of  the  preceding  sub- 
groups. 

The  central  medallion  is  found  not  only  in  modern  but  also  in 
old  Feraghans.  It  is  generally  of  diamond  or  hexagonal  shape, 
with  serrated  edges  and  with  pendants.  Almost  invariably  Herati 
figures  cover  its  surface,  and  not  infrequently  some  lattice-work 
design  with  small  conventionalised  leaves  or  flowers  appear  faintly 
on  the  field  of  uniform  colour  surrounding  it.  As  a rule,  pieces  of  this 
group  are  of  a more  striking  and  handsome  appearance  than  those 


122 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


in  which  the  entire  field  is  covered  with  numerous  minute  figures 
of  equally  rich  hues  that  blend  and  produce,  when  viewed  at 
a distance,  an  undefined  colour.  The  border  designs  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  other  group.  All  of  the  old  pieces  were  stoutly 
woven;  and  though  the  nap  was  short,  many  of  those  that  remain 
are  still  serviceable. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  dark  blue, 
with  minor  quantities  of  yellow,  light  blue,  green,  and  white.  Knot, 
Sehna,  rarely  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  eight  to  thirteen; 
perpendicularly,  seven  to  eighteen.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed 
down,  so  that  the  warp  is  usually  concealed  at  back.  Warp,  cotton; 
each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent 
at  back.  Weft,  cotton,  occasionally  dyed  blue  or  pink.  A thread 
of  weft  of  fine  or  medium  diameter  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots,  or  occasionally  a thread  of  coarse  diameter  with 
much  slack  crosses  only  once,  so  that  the  transverse  warp  produces 
a quincunx  effect.  Pile,  wool,  clipped  short.  Border,  three  stripes. 
Sides,  a double  overcasting  in  dark  colour.  Lower  end,  a web.  Upper 
end,  a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of 
slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  four  to  twelve  feet.  Usual 
width,  three  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

IIamadans.  — A little  to  the  northeast  of  Elwund  and  at  an 
altitude  that  overlooks  a small,  well-cultivated  valley  adjacent  to 
the  Feraghan  plain  is  the  city  of  Hamadan.  On  this  site  was  the 
ancient  city  of  Ecbatana,  capital  of  Media;  and  here  guarded  by 
Jews  is  a tomb,  which  tradition  declares  is  the  burial  place  of  Esther 
and  Mordecai.  Within  the  encircling  walls  are  gardens,  bazaars, 
and  mosques ; yet  the  present  city  of  forty  thousand  inhabitants  with 
its  general  misery  and  squalor  has  little  to  remind  one  of  the  mag- 
nificence of  that  former  capital  which  for  a short  period  was  mis- 
tress of  the  world. 

Like  Yezd,  Ilamadan  is  famous  for  its  namads;  and  like  Yezd 
it  once  produced,  according  to  tradition,  most  beautiful  silk  carpets, 
though  no  longer  are  any  woven  there.  But  its  looms  have  been 
busy  for  the  last  few  generations  weaving  rugs  of  wool  and  camels’ 
hair,  which  have  such  marked  individuality  that  they  bear  unmis- 
takably on  their  face  the  stamp  of  identification.  The  few  old  rugs 
that  remain  are  sterling  pieces,  which  are  stoutly  woven  and  of 
excellent  dyes.  They  come  in  many  sizes;  some  are  simply  mats, 


Plate  'iS.  Bergamo  Prater  Rug 


it 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


123 


others  sedjadehs,  and  an  unusually  large  number  are  runners.  The 
typical  pattern  of  the  mats  and  smaller  sedjadehs  consists  of  a 
central  diamond-shaped  medallion,  surrounded  by  a field  of  contrast- 
ing colour,  from  which  are  set  off  the  triangular-shaped  corners. 
In  the  large  sedjadehs  and  in  the  runners,  which  are  sometimes 
twenty  feet  or  more  in  length,  are  often  three  or  more  pole  medal- 
lions, though  the  pole  device  may  be  omitted.  These  medallions 
and  corners  are  covered  with  small,  carefully  drawn  geometric 
figures,  or  more  frequently  with  floral  designs  such  as  appear  in 
Feraghans,  and  as  a rule  are  defined  by  serrated  lines  or  are  fringed 
with  hooks  or  comb-like  teeth.  The  colour  of  the  surrounding  field 
is  unobtrusive.  In  some  pieces  it  is  void  of  pattern,  and  its  monot- 
onous tone  is  broken  only  by  slight  variations  of  shade;  yet  not 
infrequently  it  is  marked  with  faint  lines  of  slightly  darker  or  lighter 
tint,  like  a delicate  tracery.  Not  only  are  the  borders  wide,  but  a 
broad  edging,  which  is  at  least  one  half  and  sometimes  two  thirds 
as  wide  as  all  the  coloured  stripes  combined,  surrounds  them.  As 
it  is  usually  of  camels’  hair  and  without  pattern,  it  is  a very  notice- 
able characteristic.  The  main  stripe  has  an  undulating  vine  with 
conventionalised  flowers,  and  the  two  guard  stripes  have  a simpler 
vine,  or,  more  frequently,  the  reciprocal  trefoils. 

To  this  general  type,  however,  are  many  exceptions.  Sometimes 
the  figures  of  the  medallion  and  corners  are  more  geometric;  some- 
times the  corners  are  omitted;  the  outside  edging  may  be  decorated 
with  large  conventionalised  floral  or  geometric  figures;  and  occa- 
sionally a camel  or  some  other  animal  is  represented  in  the  field  or 
border.  A few  of  the  old  rugs  were  strikingly  handsome.  Dr.  George 
Birdwood  refers  to  a large  Hamadan  that  formerly  hung  in  the 
India  Museum  in  these  words:  * “An  irregular  lozenge  form,  a 
little  island  of  bright  clustering  flowers,  of  which  the  prevailing 
colours  are  red  and  blue,  adorns  the  centre;  while  the  wide  ex- 
tended ground  of  yellow,  in  irregular  shades,  surrounds  it  with  a 
rippling  amber  sea;  and  there  are  blue  pieces  in  the  corners,  within 
the  broad  blue  border  worked  in  arabesques.  It  is  a carpet  not  to 
be  laid  on  a floor,  but  to  be  hung  in  a gallery,  to  be  looked  at  like 
a golden  sunset.  It  was  a sacrilege  to  remove  it  from  the  mosque 
where  it  evidently  was  once  spread  under  the  great  dome.  Beati 
possidentes .” 

Most  of  the  old  pieces  have  disappeared,  and  in  their  places  are 
* In  “Industrial  Arts  of  India.” 


124 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


modern  products  with  pile  of  wool  or  goat’s  hair  often  dyed  in  gar- 
ish colours.  There  are  also  many  nondescript  rugs,  which  were 
gathered  from  wandering  tribes  or  surrounding  villages  and  taken 
to  Hamadan,  since  for  a long  time  it  has  been  one  of  the  great  rug 
markets  of  Persia.  When  exported  from  there  they  were  often 
classed  as  products  of  that  city. 

Moderately  old  Hamadans  contain  more  camel’s  hair  than  any 
other  class  of  rugs,  since  in  very  many  of  them  it  forms  the  pile  of 
both  field  and  outer  edging,  where  its  soft  tones  of  pale  chestnut 
colour  contrast  with  the  bright  shades  of  blue,  red,  and  yellow 
yarn  used  in  other  parts  of  the  field  and  border.  This  lavish  use 
of  camel’s  hair,  the  broad  encircling  edging,  the  cotton  warp,  and 
a single  thread  of  coarse  weft  passing  once  between  two  rows  of 
knots,  distinguish  them  from  all  other  rugs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  the  chestnut  of  camel’s 
hair  with  red  and  blue.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizon- 
tally, six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  twelve.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  firmly  pressed  down.  Warp,  cotton;  each  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  generally 
cotton,  frequently  wool;  of  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  only  once  without  slack  between  every  two  rows  of  knots, 
so  that  the  white  spots  of  transverse  cotton  warp  exposed  at  back 
have  a quincunx  appearance.  Pile,  in  old  rugs,  mostly  camel’s 
hair  and  some  wool;  in  recent  rugs,  mostly  wool  clipped  short. 
Border,  wide,  generally  of  three  or  four  stripes,  and  a broad  outer 
edging  of  camel’s  hair.  Sides,  overcast,  generally  in  brown  or  red. 
Lower  end,  a narrow  web  and  warp  loops.  Upper  end,  a narrow  web 
turned  back  and  hemmed.  Texture,  very  firm.  Weave,  at  back  is 
of  moderately  coarse  grain.  Length,  three  to  twenty-four  feet. 
Width,  two  fifths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Irans.  — Although  neither  a city  nor  district  of  Persia  is  called 
Iran,  a well-defined  class  of  rugs  is  known  to  the  trade  by  that  name. 
They  are  woven  by  some  of  the  old  Iranian  stock  dwelling  princi- 
pally in  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi.  These  people  follow  no  partic- 
ular pattern  or  colour  scheme  of  their  own,  but  to  a large  extent 
copy  those  of  a few  well-known  Persian  classes;  yet  in  other  re- 
spects their  rugs  have  a noticeable  individuality.  They  are  woven 
with  a Ghiordes  knot  and  so  loosely  that  if  the  rug  be  observed  from 
the  front,  as  it  is  bent  backward  in  a plane  parallel  to  the  direction 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


125 


of  the  weft,  the  foundation  threads  of  warp  and  weft,  which  are  of 
cotton,  will  show  distinctly  between  the  knots.  Each  of  the  two 
threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a single  knot  are  equally  prominent 
at  the  back.  Ordinarily  the  threads  of  weft  cross  twice  between 
the  rows  of  knots,  but  occasionally  they  cross  only  once,  as  in  Ham- 
adans.  Many  of  the  fabrics  regarded  as  Sarabends,  Feraghans, 
and  even  Hamadans  are  in  reality  Irans,  which  on  account  of  their 
inferior  workmanship  are  much  less  valuable. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue  and  red,  with 
minor  quantities  of  ivory,  yellow,  green,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally,  six  to  eleven;  perpendicularly,  seven  to 
eleven.  A half  knot  as  it  appears  at  back  is  frequently  longer, 
measured  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  rug,  than  wide.  The 
rows  of  knots  are  not  pressed  down  closely,  so  that  the  warp  is  notice- 
able at  back.  Warp,  cotton;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by 
a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back;  they  are  not  closely  strung, 
so  that  each  half  knot  stands  out  distinctly.  Weft,  cotton;  a thread 
of  weft  of  coarse  diameter  as  a rule  crosses  twice  between  each  two 
rows  of  knots,  and  only  rarely  crosses  but  once.  The  weft  is  con- 
spicuous between  the  knots  at  front  when  the  rug  is  bent  backwards. 
Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  generally  four  to  six  stripes. 
Sides,  a heavy  double  overcasting  that  is  generally  brown  or  black, 
but  sometimes  red.  Lower  end,  a narrow  web.  Upper  end,  a narrow 
web  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Texture,  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of 
coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  ten  feet.  Usual  width,  two 
fifths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Sarouks.  — Towards  the  western  end  of  the  Feraghan  plain 
and  at  an  altitude  of  seventy -five  hundred  feet  is  the  mud-walled 
village  of  Sarouk.  Here,  shaded  by  poplars,  are  clustered  one  hundred 
and  fifty  houses,  with  floors,  roofs,  and  sides  of  mud  that  has  dried 
and  cracked  until  it  admits  the  wind.  The  sun  and  light  enter 
through  the  open  doors,  for  there  are  no  windows.  Nor  are  there 
chimneys,  but  simply  openings  between  the  rafters  to  permit  the 
escape  of  smoke  from  the  open  fireplace  in  the  floor  below  and  the 
entrance  of  more  wind.  At  times  the  atmosphere  is  not  only  op- 
pressive with  smoke,  but  is  laden  with  odours  that  arise  from  the 
pens  beneath  and  beside  the  houses,  where  fowls,  sheep,  and  goats 
are  huddled.  During  the  winter  and  early  spring  snow  lies  on  the 
ground;  a little  later  a hot  summer  follows.  Yet  amid  these  de- 


126 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


pressing  surroundings  and  under  these  adverse  conditions  lived 
weavers  who  gave  the  name  of  their  little  village  to  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  rugs  made  in  all  the  East. 

Now  and  then  is  seen  an  old  piece  with  surface  like  velvet  and 
with  mellowed  tones  of  perfect  harmony  that  has  come  from  these 
huts  or  surrounding  hills;  but  probably  not  one  in  a score,  perhaps 
not  one  in  a hundred,  of  the  Sarouks  now  offered  for  sale  in  this  coun- 
try was  woven  there,  as  most  of  them  are  made  in  the  workhouses 
of  larger  cities,  though  they  follow  essentially  the  general  appear- 
ance and  technique  of  old  and  genuine  pieces,  even  if  lacking  some 
of  their  best  qualities.  Nevertheless,  the  modern  pieces  are  of  hand- 
some colour,  of  graceful  pattern,  and  are  well  woven.  Some  of  them, 
which  were  made  two  or  three  decades  ago,  had  large  designs  of 
the  cypress,  willow,  or  the  tree  of  life,  as  well  as  realistically  drawn 
animals  represented  in  the  fields;  but  the  great  majority  of  those 
now  seen  invariably  follow  a pattern  consisting  of  a large  medallion 
wTith  pendants,  or  of  two  or  more  concentric  medallions  resting  on 
the  field,  from  which  are  set  off  the  four  corners.  Defining  the  edges 
of  both  medallions  and  corners  are  lines  that  are  most  artistically 
irregular,  yet  correspond  with  one  another. 

Between  each  part  is  the  greatest  co-ordination,  for  the  designs 
of  field,  corners,  medallions,  and  borders  are  similar.  On  long 
delicate  stems  that  bend  and  interlock  like  carved  tracery  are 
leaves,  buds,  and  flowers,  suggesting  the  craftsmanship  of  the  best 
days  of  old  Iran.  The  borders  generally  have  only  three  stripes: 
a broad  main  stripe  on  which  appears  an  elaborately  drawn  undu- 
lating vine  with  pendent  flowers,  and  a narrow  guard  stripe  on 
each  side.  Sometimes  the  guards  are  ornamented  with  only  a 
simple  vine,  but  more  frequently  with  a reciprocal  pattern,  which, 
however,  is  so  well  drawn  as  to  conflict  in  no  wise  with  the  harmony 
of  the  floral  forms.  In  the  drawing  of  the  borders  the  weavers 
exercise  greater  latitude  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  rug;  for  oc- 
casionally they  add  a narrow  outer  edging  of  dark  colour,  place  the 
reciprocal  figure  next  to  the  innermost  stripe  as  a fringe  to  the  field, 
or  increase  the  number  of  stripes  to  seven.  Rarely  is  the  medallion 
wanting  in  modern  pieces,  but  now  and  then  the  pendants  are  re- 
placed by  bunches  of  flowers,  and  in  some  pieces  the  corners  extend 
along  the  sides  in  undulating  lines  until  they  meet  near  the  centre. 

All  of  these  pieces  are  so  closely  woven  that  the  fine  bluish 
weft  is  hardly  discernible  at  the  back.  Very  few  other  rugs  have 


Plate  29.  Ghiordes  Prayer  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


127 


such  short-cut  wool,  which  has  a velvety  appearance,  rendered  more 
effective  by  the  soft,  rich  colours  that  are  always  in  perfect  harmony 
and  excellent  taste.  As  a rule  they  are  dark.  Ever  present  in  the 
ground  colours  are  deep  blues  and  reds,  suggestive  of  the  hues  of 
the  so-called  “Ispahans;”  while  olives,  delicate  greens,  and  ivory 
represent  with  consummate  dignity  of  tone  and  design  a lavish 
tracery  of  leaves  and  foliage  motives. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  blue  and  red, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green,  olive,  buff,  and  ivory.  Knot,  Selina. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  twelve  to  eighteen;  perpendicularly, 
twelve  to  twenty.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that 
the  warp  is  concealed  and  the  weft  is  partly  hidden  at  back.  Warp, 
cotton,  rarely  linen;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot 
is  almost  always  doubled  under  the  other;  in  a few  pieces  it  is 
only  depressed.  Weft,  cotton,  of  small  diameter,  dyed  blue.  A 
thread  of  weft  of  fine  diameter  crosses  twice  between  every  two 
rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  short  and  velvety.  Border,  generally 
of  three  stripes  but  sometimes  as  many  as  seven.  Occasionally 
there  is  an  outer  edging  of  dark  colour.  Sides,  a tightly  wound 
double  overcasting  of  red,  blue,  or  black  wool.  Both  ends,  a narrow 
web,  or  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture,  very  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  fine  grain.  Length,  four  to  twelve  feet.  Width,  two 
thirds  to  three  quarters  length. 

Kashans.  — Near  the  centre  of  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi, 
on  the  ancient  and  well-travelled  highway  between  Ispahan  and 
Teheran,  is  the  city  of  Kashan,  from  which,  according  to  an  old 
tradition,  the  three  Wise  Men  of  the  East  followed  the  Star  of  Beth- 
lehem. Like  many  of  the  cities  of  Persia  it  is  now  largely  in  ruins; 
its  homes  are  infested  with  scorpions;  for  many  months  of  the  year 
the  heat,  which  in  a measure  is  due  to  the  proximity  of  the  great 
salt  desert  that  extends  far  into  Khorassan,  is  unendurable;  yet 
in  spite  of  these  inconveniences,  for  which  perhaps  familiarity  has 
in  a measure  lent  contempt,  forty  thousand  people  live  there.  In 
the  past  it  has  produced  some  of  the  greatest  artists  and  artisans  of 
weaving.  It  was  once  the  home  of  Maksoud,  whom  Shah  Ismael  I 
ordered  to  weave  the  famous  carpet  of  the  Mosque  of  Ardebil, 
which,  ranking  among  the  greatest  woven  products  that  still  exist, 
bears  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  wonderful  technique  and  artistic 
skill  then  practised  in  Kashan.  Without  a doubt  other  textile 


128 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


masterpieces  of  the  XVI  and  XVII  Centuries  were  woven  there, 
for  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  believe  that  the  city  where  Maksoud 
had  learned  his  art  was  not  at  that  time  a prominent  rug-producing 
centre. 

According  to  Persian  tradition  many  of  the  antique  silk  carpets 
came  from  Kashan.  At  any  rate,  it  has  been  for  a long  time  custom- 
ary to  take  the  raw  silk  from  other  places  to  be  spun  and  dyed  there. 
Some  of  it  is  woven  into  rugs,  which  are  considered  among  the  best 
of  modern  pieces,  though  the  demand  for  them  is  small. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  woollen  pieces  are  now  found  in  every 
market,  though  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  they  have  been 
generally  known.  Occasionally  they  are  defined  as  a higher  grade 
of  Sarouks,  on  account  of  the  striking  resemblance  in  texture,  colours, 
and  designs;  yet  there  are  certain  distinctions:  the  warp  is  often 
linen,  the  nap  is  a little  shorter,  the  texture  slightly  firmer,  and  there 
are  a great  number  of  border  stripes.  A feature  that  is  more  fre- 
quently found  in  these  two  classes  than  in  any  other  is  the  fringe 
of  hooks  or  short  comb-like  teeth  that  border  the  innermost  stripe 
and  extend  into  the  field.  Without  doubt  Kashans  are  among  the 
most  perfect  as  well  as  the  most  expensive  woollen  products  of  the 
modern  Persian  looms.  Their  velvet-like  surface  and  rich  sheen 
give  them  an  appearance  that  to  those  unfamiliar  with  rugs  seems 
like  that  of  silken  pieces.  The  fine  wool  is  dyed  with  rich,  deep 
tones  of  blue,  olive,  red,  and  brown;  the  perfectly  balanced  pattern 
is  artistic  as  well  as  ornate;  and  on  account  of  the  very  short  nap 
the  drawing  of  each  minute  detail  is  clear.  In  place  of  bold  designs 
accentuated  by  masses  of  colour  are  delicate  tracings  of  floral  and 
foliage  motives,  of  graceful  arabesques  and  foliated  stalks,  so  ex- 
pressed in  rhythmic  lines  and  harmonious  tones  as  to  give  a sense  of 
the  greatest  refinement.  Even  though  these  rugs  be  modern  and 
chemically  washed,  their  wealth  of  artistic  workmanship  and  ex- 
quisite colour  make  them  exceedingly  handsome. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  blue,  red,  and 
yellowish  brown,  with  minor  quantities  of  light  blue  and  green. 
Knot,  Sehna.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  sixteen  to  twenty;  per- 
pendicularly, sixteen  to  twenty -four.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly 
pressed  down  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  and  the  weft  almost 
hidden  at  back.  Warp,  generally  cotton,  rarely  linen;  one  of  the 
two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft , 
generally  cotton,  of  small  diameter,  dyed  blue;  rarely  linen.  A 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


129 


thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile, 
wool,  very  short  and  velvety.  Border,  generally  of  seven  stripes. 
Sides,  a tightly  wound  double  overcasting  in  dark  red,  blue,  or  brown. 
Lower  end,  a narrow  web.  Upper  end,  a narrow  web  and  short  warp 
fringe.  Texture,  very  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  very  fine  grain. 
Usual  length,  six  to  ten  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three 
quarters  length. 

Sarabends.  — Standing  on  the  top  of  lofty  Elwund,  that  rises 
on  the  boundary  between  the  provinces  of  Ardelan  and  Irak-Ajemi, 
in  Northwestern  Persia,  one  would  see  within  a radius  of  ninety  miles 
as  prolific  a centre  of  rug  weaving  as  anywhere  exists.  Just  within 
this  distance  to  the  northwest  are  Selina  and  Bijar,  to  the  southeast 
is  Sultanabad,  to  the  southwest  is  Kermanshah;  and  skirting  the 
mountain  on  the  eastern  side  are  the  high  plains  where  lie  the 
districts  of  Hamadan,  Feraghan,  and  Sarawan,  as  wTell  as  the  village 
of  Sarouk  and  less  important  centres  of  weaving. 

Among  the  valleys  of  the  Sarawan  district,  that  lies  on  the 
northern  flanks  of  mountain  ranges  extending  as  far  as  Ispahan, 
are  made  the  rugs  which,  by  a corruption  of  the  word  Sarawan,  are 
known  as  the  Sarabends.  No  other  rugs  of  Persia  have  a pattern 
that  is  so  simple,  and  that  for  generations  has  been  followed  with  so 
little  variation.  Nor  are  there  any  other  modern  rugs  that  have 
changed  less  from  the  old  styles  in  respect  to  colour  and  quality. 
The  typical  pattern  of  the  field  consists  of  rows  of  pear  designs  ar- 
ranged in  transverse  lines,  with  the  smaller  ends  pointing  in  different 
directions  in  alternate  lines.  The  pears  of  the  field  show  great  di- 
versity of  shape,  but  those  of  the  borders  are  long,  narrow,  and  most 
angular;  yet  they  never  assume  the  rectilinear  figures  found  in  Baku 
rugs.  Only  very  rarely  is  there  any  departure  from  this  pattern; 
though  in  a few  old  pieces  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Herati  design,  and 
now  and  then  is  seen  a geometric  figure,  or  human  form,  or  the  date 
when  the  piece  was  woven. 

The  ground  colour  of  the  field  may  be  blue,  red,  or  white.  If 
blue,  it  is  so  largely  covered  with  pinkish  or  rose-coloured  pears 
that  the  prevailing  hue,  when  the  pieces  are  viewed  from  a distance, 
is  light  red.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  field  is  red,  the  pears  are  mostly 
blue;  and  if  the  field  is  ivory  white,  the  pears  are  red  and  blue. 
In  all  old  pieces  the  blue  has  rich,  deep  tones,  the  red  has  mel- 
lowed into  soft  rose  or  delicate  pink,  and  the  white  has  turned 


130 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


to  ivory.  This  pleasing  effect  is  increased  by  shades  of  yellow  and 
green,  which  are  added  to  the  other  colours  of  the  pears. 

With  few  exceptions  the  borders  have  a large  number  of  narrow 
stripes,  of  which  the  central  is  about  one  third  the  aggregate  width. 
Its  ground  colour  is  ivory  white,  but  the  angular  vine  and  pendent, 
narrow  pears  have  the  same  colours  as  those  of  the  field.  On  each 
side  of  it  is  usually  a stripe  with  ground  colour  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  field  and  with  an  undulating  vine  and  rosette.  Almost  in- 
variably there  is  an  outer  stripe  of  reciprocal  trefoil  in  red  and 
blue,  which  may  be  balanced  by  a reciprocal  sawtooth  adjoining  the 
field.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  large  pieces  with  two  white  stripes, 
and  very  rarely  one  is  seen  with  three. 

The  best  of  these  pieces  are  made  in  the  town  of  Mirabad,  which 
signifies  the  “city  of  Mir,”  and  are  accordingly  called  Mir-Sarabends. 
They  can  be  distinguished  from  others,  known  to  the  trade  as 
Royal  Sarabends,  by  the  fact  that  in  tying  the  knots  the  yarn  is 
so  twisted  that  one  thread  of  warp  is  doubled  under  the  other; 
and  in  the  latter  each  of  the  two  threads  appear  with  equal  promi- 
nence at  the  back.  Neither  of  them  should  ever  be  mistaken  for  Iran 
imitations,  in  which  the  pile  is  of  much  looser  texture  and  is  tied 
with  the  Ghiordes  knot.  For  durability,  there  are  very  few  modern 
pieces  that  will  give  the  satisfaction  of  Sarabends;  for  as  a rule 
they  are  stoutly  and  closely  woven,  and  though  there  is  monotony 
in  the  pattern,  those  coloured  with  vegetable  dyes  will  grow  more 
beautiful  with  age. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  or  blue,  with 
minor  quantities  of  ivory,  yellow,  and  green.  Knot,  Sehna.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  eight  to  thirteen ; perpendicularly,  nine  to  thir- 
teen. The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp 
does  not  show  at  back.  Warp,  cotton.  In  Mir-Sarabends  one  of 
the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other  at 
back.  In  Royal  Sarabends  each  is  equally  prominent.  Weft,  cotton, 
of  fine  diameter,  and  dyed  red  or  blue.  A thread  of  weft  crosses 
twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  short  or 
medium  length.  Border,  five  to  seven  stripes,  and  occasionally 
even  more.  Sides,  a red  double  overcasting.  Lower  end,  a web, 
or  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Upper  end,  a web  and  short  warp 
fringe.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  fine  grain. 
Length,  five  to  eighteen  feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds 
length. 


COLOUR  PLATE  V — GHIORDES  PRAYER  RUG 

Only  now  and  then  is  seen  a prayer  Ghiordes  that  represents  such  a 
high  type  of  artistic  skill.  The  weaving  follows  more  closely  the  fine 
technique  of  the  Persian  than  that  of  the  Asia  Minor  weaver.  Yet  it 
is  the  drawing  and  colouring  that  claim  attention.  The  delicate  tra- 
cery of  the  spandrel , the  minute  delineation  of  tendril  and  leaf  in  the 
border,  and  the  perfect  balance  of  every  part  of  one  side  with  a corre- 
sponding part  in  the  other,  resemble  the  finest  workmanship  of  old  Iran. 
Not  only  so,  but  the  beautiful  border  pattern  of  rosette  and  leaf  is  so 
suggestive  of  the  well-known  Herati  design  that  it  seems  not  improb- 
able that  here  is  shown  the  influence  of  those  Persian  weavers  that 
Solyman  the  Magnificent  took  with  him  to  Asia  Minor  after  his  cap- 
ture of  Tabriz.  The  colour  also  displays  dainty  tones  and  careful 
shading  found  in  no  other  class  of  Asia  Minor  rugs.  Such  pieces  are 
usually  regarded  as  products  of  the  XVI  Century. 

Property  of  the  Author 


. 

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•tosUvsk  \o  vi^ssqokl 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


131 


Burujirds.  — About  sixty  miles  to  the  west  of  Sultanabad 
and  forty  to  the  south  of  the  Sarawan  district  is  the  city  of  Burujird. 
It  is  in  a rich,  well -watered  valley  and  is  surrounded  by  numerous 
hamlets.  Most  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture;  and 
only  a small  part,  who  are  stimulated  by  the  increased  prices  oc- 
casioned by  the  rug  industry  of  Sultanabad,  are  weavers.  They 
produce  pieces  that  resemble  closely  the  Sarabend  rugs,  as  the  field 
is  generally  occupied  with  pear  designs;  but  on  account  of  the 
Ghiordes  knot  and  cotton  warp  and  weft,  they  might  be  mistaken  for 
Iran  rugs. 

Sultanabads.  — Southeastward  from  the  plain  of  Feraghan  is 
the  city  of  Sultanabad,  which  in  recent  years  has  become  important 
as  the  centre  of  a great  rug  industry  controlled  by  Europeans  and 
Americans.  Higher  prices,  resulting  from  the  constantly  increasing 
Western  demand  for  Persian  rugs,  have  stimulated  the  native  weavers 
to  more  persistent  efforts.  Those  who  are  too  poor  to  purchase 
wool  and  dyes  * are  supplied  by  the  companies.  Others,  who  are 
more  dependent,  are  paid  regular  wages.  Thus  it  happens  that 
not  only  large  numbers  of  looms  are  constantly  at  work  in  the  city, 
but  a hundred  hamlets  and  villages  that  lie  within  a day’s  journey 
produce  rugs  that  are  marketed  there.  But  while  the  output  has 
been  increased  the  true  artistic  spirit  has  been  suppressed,  and 
patterns  favoured  or  supplied  by  foreign  purchasers  only  are  in  de- 
mand. Most  of  the  rugs  are  well  woven,  though  there  is  a differ- 
ence in  grades.  Some  take  the  name  of  the  city,  others  are  called 
Savalans,  from  a range  of  mountains  that  lie  to  the  north,  and 
others  are  known  as  Mahals.  Most  of  them  are  large  pieces,  rather 
coarsely  woven. 

Muskabads.  — In  the  district  of  Muskabad,  a short  distance 
to  the  northwest  of  Sultanabad,  are  produced  rugs  very  similar 
to  the  Mahals.  They  come  in  the  same  large  carpet  sizes  and 
nearly  square  shapes;  they  have  almost  the  same  harmonious  colour 
scheme  of  unobtrusive  red,  yellow,  blue,  green,  and  ivory;  they  have 
the  same  cotton  warp  and  weft,  the  same  finish  of  sides  and  ends; 
but  as  a rule  they  are  less  closely  woven.  The  patterns  are  varied. 
Occasionally  they  have  large  figures  such  as  are  seen  in  Gorevans, 

* Sidney  Churchill  in  the  Imperial  Vienna  Book  says  that  “the  dyes  of  Sul- 
tanabad have  perhaps  the  most  extensive  colour  scheme  in  Persia.” 


132 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


though  these  are  more  usual  in  Mahals.  In  some  of  them  the  field 
is  covered  with  conventionalised  leaf  and  floral  form.  But  the  usual 
type  has  two  or  more  concentric  medallions  of  different  colours 
covered  with  the  small  Herati  designs  so  distinctive  of  the  Fera- 
ghans.  When  such  is  the  case,  the  border  has  usually  the  turtle 
pattern  in  the  main  stripe  and  some  stiffly  drawn  vine  and  floral 
pattern  in  the  smaller  stripes.  But  the  velvety  appearance,  the 
elegant  finish  of  old  Feraghans,  is  always  lacking.  The  nap  is  of 
soft  wool  of  medium  length,  but  the  surface  of  the  back  displays 
coarse  texture.  These  pieces  lack  the  artistic  qualities  of  most 
Persian  rugs;  but  on  account  of  their  excellent  quality  of  material 
and  stoutness  of  weave  they  are  very  serviceable. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  ivory, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes  or  Sehna. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  fourteen;  perpendicularly,  eight 
to  twelve.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down.  Warp, 
cotton;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  generally 
depressed  at  back,  and  frequently  nearly  doubled  under  the  other. 
Weft,  cotton,  of  medium  to  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of 
medium  length.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes,  with  a narrow  outer 
edging.  Sides,  a double  overcasting.  Lower  end,  a very  narrow 
web  and  short  warp  fringe.  U pper  end,  short  warp  fringe.  Texture, 
moderately  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  very  coarse  grain.  Length, 
ten  to  eighteen  feet.  Width,  two  thirds  to  seven  eighths  length. 

Joshaghans.  — Lying  to  the  southeast  of  Sultanabad  and  to 
the  north  of  Ispahan  is  a district  where  a century  ago  were  woven 
some  of  the  best  carpets  of  Persia,  known  as  Joshaghans  or  Djush- 
ghans.  Even  long  before  then  it  was  noted  for  its  textile  fabrics; 
but  during  the  reign  of  Nadir  Shah,  who  removed  many  of  the  best 
artisans  from  the  central  to  the  northwestern  part  of  Persia,  the 
carpet  weaving  received  a new  impulse,  and  continued  to  flourish 
there  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Since  that  time 
it  has  almost  ceased,  so  that  the  genuine  Joshaghans  of  rich,  deep 
colour  and  skilfully  drawn  pattern  are  all  sixty  or  more  years  of  age. 
They  may  still  be  found  scattered  throughout  the  country,  and 
should  be  carefully  preserved;  for  they  merit  the  high  esteem 
accorded  to  them  by  the  Persians  themselves. 

In  a few  of  these  pieces  are  seen  the  Shah  Abbas  pattern.  In  other 


tssgplife 


Plate  30.  Giiiordes  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


133 


pieces  the  field  is  covered  with  scrolls,  or  with  a lattice-work  pattern 
in  which  small  floral  forms  are  the  motives.  Again  it  is  occupied  by 
pear  designs  encircled  by  small  rounded  figures,  which  combined  form 
the  outlines  of  a larger  pear,  while  in  the  intervening  spaces  are  small 
floral  forms.  The  principal  border  stripe  generally  consists  of  floral 
designs,  which  not  infrequently  are  some  form  of  the  Ilerati  pattern. 
The  secondary  stripes  often  contain  floral  vines. 

Whatever  the  pattern  of  the  field,  the  effect  is  always  striking 
and  beautiful;  for  the  lines  are  never  harsh,  and  the  colours  are  rich. 
The  ground  is  very  frequently  a rose  tint,  but  is  sometimes  dark 
blue;  and  the  overlying  designs  are  rose,  yellow,  green,  and  ivory. 
The  colours  of  the  border  are  generally  the  same  as  those  of  the 
smaller  designs,  so  that  the  effect  is  always  harmonious.  These 
rugs  are  excellently  woven;  and  the  soft  lustrous  wool  of  the  pile, 
which  is  usually  longer  than  that  of  Sarabends  and  Feraghans, 
has  often  an  appearance  like  plush. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  with 
lesser  quantities  of  yellow,  green,  brown,  and  ivory.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  eleven;  perpendicularly,  eight 
to  thirteen.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  always  firmly  pressed  down, 
so  that  the  warp  may  be  seen  at  back.  Warp,  usually  cotton,  oc- 
casionally wool ; one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  usually 
depressed  below  the  other  at  the  back.  Weft,  wool,  sometimes 
dyed  red,  brown,  or  reddish  brown,  but  frequently  of  natural  colour. 
A thread  of  weft  generally  crosses  twice,  but  sometimes  three  times 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  short  or  medium 
length.  Border,  usually  three  stripes.  Sides,  a double  overcasting 
that  is  generally  browm  or  black.  Lower  end,  a web.  Upper  end, 
a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave  at  back 
is  of  moderately  fine  grain.  Usual  length,  eight  to  sixteen  feet. 
Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

Sehnas.  — Seldom  has  prophecy  been  more  precisely  fulfilled 
than  the  one  made  a decade  ago  that  the  old  Persian  rugs  would 
rapidly  disappear  from  the  market.  Nor  is  it  better  exemplified 
than  in  the  case  of  those  woven  before  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
in  Sehna,  capital  of  Ardelan,  for  to-day  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  obtain  any  of  them.  Nevertheless,  there  are  still  many  looms 
among  the  four  or  five  thousand  families  of  the  city,  where  true  to 
early  traditions  are  woven  modern  fabrics  that  maintain  the  same 


134 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


floral  Persian  patterns,  the  same  colour,  the  same  general  character 
of  weave;  but  they  lack  the  fine  technique  of  the  older  pieces. 
It  is,  indeed,  surprising  that  these  modern  pieces  so  closely  resemble 
the  old  in  all  save  quality,  when  it  is  considered  that  Sehna  is  distant 
only  fifty  miles  from  the  western  border  of  Persia;  that  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  Kurdish  tribes  who  for  generations  have  woven  rugs 
with  nomadic  features ; and  that  it  is  not  far  distant  from  other  im- 
portant rug  centres. 

To  one  familiar  with  the  leading  characteristics  it  is  possible  at 
once  to  distinguish  these  rugs.  Their  nap  is  exceedingly  short,  and 
the  weave  is  so  distinctive  that  with  eyes  closed  an  expert  will  gen- 
erally recognise  them  after  rubbing  the  hand  across  the  front  and 
back.  Their  patterns,  also,  conform  to  well-established  types,  yet 
have  sufficient  variety  to  be  always  interesting.  They  may  be 
conveniently  divided  into  two  groups:  one  represents  the  entire 
field  covered  with  floral  designs,  and  the  other  represents  a field 
of  uniform  colour  with  a medallion  at  the  centre,  or  with  two  or 
more  concentric  medallions.  The  former,  which  is  undoubtedly 
the  older  group,  has  generally  a small  diaper  pattern  of  the  Herati 
design  or  floral  figures  daintily  drawn.  To  obviate  too  great  mo- 
notony, a number  of  the  old  pieces  have  the  leaves  and  flowers  so 
adjusted  that  the  ground  conveys  the  effect  of  lattice  work,  or  less 
often  have  small  trees  of  cypress  regularly  placed  amid  the  other 
floral  designs.  Again,  the  field  may  be  covered  with  large  pear  de- 
signs placed  in  rows.  Of  modern  pieces  the  most  beautiful  pattern, 
as  a rule,  consists  of  a field  of  rich,  uniform  colour,  as  ivory  or  red, 
containing  at  its  centre  a single  medallion  of  contrasting  ground 
colour,  which  is  generally  dark  blue  or  even  black.  The  four  corners 
of  the  field  have  serrated  edges  and  are  covered  with  floral  designs 
similar  to  those  of  the  medallion.  The  borders,  which  are  invari- 
ably narrow,  usually  consist  of  three  stripes,  but  sometimes  of  only 
two.  With  very  few  exceptions  they  are  floral,  and  in  the  main  one, 
that  has  a ground  colour  of  yellow  or  red,  are  represented  designs 
which  are  also  similar  to  those  of  the  medallion.  Some  of  the  old 
Sehnas  had  borders  that  were  less  floral  than  more  modern  pieces, 
and  the  turtle  design  so  common  to  Feraghans  was  often  used.  Iso- 
lated and  adventitious  designs,  such  as  are  seen  in  all  nomadic  rugs, 
are  never  found  in  these  pieces,  nor  are  the  floriated  scrolls  that  are 
peculiar  to  Sarouks,  Kashans,  and  Kermanshahs. 

As  is  seldom  the  case  with  modern  rugs,  occasionally  both  linen 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


135 


and  silk  are  used  for  the  warp,  and  silk  for  overcasting,  but  generally 
the  warp  is  cotton  and  the  overcasting  is  of  wool.  The  city  of  Selina 
has  given  its  name  to  the  kind  of  knot  with  which  almost  all  the 
rugs  of  China  and  Turkestan  as  well  as  many  of  the  rugs  of  India 
and  Persia  are  tied;  yet  strange  as  it  may  seem,  its  own  weavers 
have  been  inconsistent  in  its  use.  To  be  sure,  most  of  its  rugs  have 
the  Sehna  knot,  but  a surprisingly  large  proportion  of  both  recent 
and  comparatively  old  pieces  have  the  Ghiordes  knot.  Only  a 
few  other  rugs  ever  adopt  the  same  style  of  weaving;  for  a thread 
of  weft  passes  between  two  rows  of  knots  but  once,  so  that  at  the 
back  only  alternate  threads  of  white  cotton  warp  appear  between 
these  knots  and  thus  give  to  the  weave  a checkered  appearance  or 
quincunx  effect.  Moreover,  the  yarn  of  the  knots  is  not  drawn 
tightly  against  the  warp,  so  that  in  whatever  direction  the  hand  is 
rubbed  the  surface  feels  like  a file.  Very  few  other  rugs  are  so  closely 
woven,  as  four  hundred  knots  to  the  square  inch  are  not  uncommon; 
and  in  very  old  pieces  nearly  double  that  number  are  now  and  then 
met  with.  Since  both  warp  and  weft  are  of  fine  threads  and  the  nap 
is  very  short,  these  rugs  are  exceedingly  thin  and,  accordingly,  are 
not  well  adapted  for  floor  use. 

Some  old  saddle-bags  are  still  to  be  found,  rich  in  their  fields  of 
deep  blues  and  floral  forms  of  brighter  tones,  but  unfortunately 
they  are  somewhat  marred  by  the  long  slit  in  the  centre  made  to 
fit  the  saddle. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  blue,  red,  and 
ivory,  with  lesser  quantities  of  green,  light  blue,  and  yellow.  Knot, 
Sehna,  often  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  eleven  to  twenty; 
perpendicularly,  twelve  to  twenty-four.  The  rows  of  knots  are 
closely  pressed  down,  but  the  yarn  of  knots  is  not  drawn  tight  against 
the  warp.  Warp,  generally  cotton,  occasionally  linen,  rarely  silk. 
Each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent 
at  back.  Weft,  generally  cotton,  occasionally  wool  or  linen,  rarely 
silk.  A single  thread  of  small  diameter  crosses  only  once  between 
every  two  rows  of  knots,  so  that  the  white  spots  of  transverse  warp 
exposed  at  back  have  a quincunx  appearance.  Pile,  wool  clipped 
very  short.  Border,  three  stripes.  Sides,  a tightly  wound  double 
overcasting.  Lower  end,  a short  web,  or  web  and  warp  loops,  or  web 
and  short  warp  fringe.  Upper  end,  short  web  and  fringe.  Texture, 
very  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  fine  grain  but  very  rough.  Length, 
three  to  seven  feet.  Width,  two  thirds  to  three  quarters  length. 


136 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Bijars.  — One  hundred  miles  beyond  Hamadan,  on  the  road 
to  Tabriz,  is  the  city  of  Bijar,  capital  of  the  district  of  Gehrous. 
It  is  surrounded  by  barren  mountains  that  rise  out  of  high  table- 
lands, where  for  miles  scarcely  a habitation  or  bush  breaks  the  mo- 
notony, and  where  not  even  a blade  of  grass  or  flower  brightens  the 
cracked  and  sun-parched  earth,  except  for  a short  season  of  the  year. 
As  is  the  case  throughout  nearly  all  Persia,  the  spirit  of  desolation  has 
crept  into  the  city;  the  grapevine  climbs  over  ruined  walls;  the 
shade  of  poplars  and  willows  falls  alike  on  decaying  palace  and 
crumbling  houses.  Yet  there  still  remain  caravansaries,  schools, 
and  mosques,  as  well  as  a population  of  five  thousand  people.  With- 
out doubt  the  importance  of  the  city  is  partly  due  to  the  regiment 
of  soldiers  that  the  governor  maintains  to  keep  in  subjection  the 
bands  of  robbers  and  fierce  Kurds  who,  in  large  numbers,  live 
throughout  the  surrounding  country.  Nor  are  they  the  only  tribes 
of  fierce  foreign  blood  dwelling  in  this  region;  for  it  is  stated  that 
during  the  invasions  of  the  Timurids,  a body  of  Turkomans  from 
the  fortress  town  of  old  Saraks,  where  the  corners  of  Persia  and 
Afghanistan  meet  Turkestan,  followed  the  conqueror  westward 
and  settled  here.  After  them  is  named- a small  river  that  flows  a 
short  distance  to  the  north  and  finally  empties  into  Lake  Urumiah; 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  apply  the  name  Saraks  to  the  rugs 
woven  about  Bijar,  though  they  have  none  of  the  Turkoman 
characteristics. 

By  adopting  some  of  the  best  qualities  of  both  Persian  and 
Kurdish  rugs,  the  Bijar  weavers  have  produced  pieces  of  unusual 
merit.  The  foundation  is  generally  of  wool;  but  unlike  almost  all 
other  rugs  with  nomadic  features  one  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot 
is  doubled  beneath  the  other  in  the  process  of  weaving,  so  that 
it  is  almost  or  entirely  concealed.  Bijars  are  accordingly  pieces 
of  great  firmness  and  durability.  Moreover,  their  threads  of  warp 
and  weft  are  of  coarse  diameter,  so  that  they  are  invariably  thick 
even  when  the  nap  is  not  long.  They  are  also  distinctive  in  the  effec- 
tive massing  of  bright  and  strong  colours.  Perhaps  the  association 
with  ranges  of  treeless  hills,  with  salt  wastes,  with  vast  plains  where 
rainless  months  leave  the  grass  parched  and  the  flowers  withered, 
has  deadened  the  Persian  love  for  the  brilliant,  joyous  colours  so 
acutely  cherished  in  other  parts  of  Asia;  but  by  the  weavers  of  Bijar 
it  is  not  unusual  to  discard  many  of  the  Persian  colours,  which,  how- 
ever rich,  are  subdued  and  sombre,  and  adopt  the  brighter  hues 


X3C3K 


* 

g! 

*! 

* 

g* 

♦ 

* 

1 

♦ 

pti 

♦ 

u 

* 

* 

i 

Plate  31.  Kulah  Prayer  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


137 


seen  in  some  of  the  rugs  of  Asia  Minor.  Yet,  as  is  not  always  the 
case  with  the  latter,  there  is  no  sense  of  outraged  taste;  and  though 
crimson  reds,  deep  blues,  or  tawny  camel’s  hair  be  brought  in  relief 
against  a field  of  strongly  contrasting  colour,  the  effect,  except  in 
modern  pieces  of  poor  dyes,  is  never  displeasing. 

In  the  pattern  much  latitude  is  exercised,  but  only  in  the 
oldest  pieces  are  found  the  gracefully  flowing  lines  suggestive  of  the 
highest  Persian  art.  In  many  pieces  a central  medallion  and  tri- 
angular-shaped corners,  separated  by  a field  of  plain  or  slightly 
shaded  colour,  is  a favourite  pattern.  But  the  defining  lines  are 
severe,  and  lack  the  delicate  drawing  characteristic  of  Kermanshahs 
and  Sarouks.  Or  the  field  may  be  covered  with  a lattice-work 
pattern  that  contains  small  repetitive  forms,  consisting  of  slender 
stems  supporting  one  or  more  flowers.  Frequently  a rug  is  covered 
with  a medley  of  designs  composed  of  conventionalised  flowers, 
crudely  drawn  trees,  as  well  as  birds,  animals,  or  human  beings. 
The  borders  generally  consist  of  an  outer  edging  of  plain  colour,  and 
three  stripes,  on  which  are  often  represented  purely  geometric  forms, 
but  more  frequently  the  undulating  vine  and  pendent  leaves,  such 
as  are  common  to  most  Persian  rugs.  Fortunately  many  sterling 
pieces  still  remain  that  have  none  of  the  earmarks  of  factory -made 
rugs,  but  are  beautiful  with  their  soft  wool  and  lustrous  colours, 
as  well  as  interesting  with  their  blending  of  Persian  and  Kurdish 
features. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  also  blue,  ivory, 
green,  yellow,  and  chocolate.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch 
horizontally  six  to  ten;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  twelve.  The  rows 
of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  at  back 
and  the  weft  partly  hidden.  Warp,  wool;  one  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft,  wool,  of  me- 
dium or  coarse  diameter,  frequently  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  of  medium 
length,  usually  wool,  but  frequently  partly  of  camel’s  hair.  Border, 
of  three  stripes,  often  with  an  outer  edging.  Sides,  a double  over- 
casting in  red  or  purple.  Lower  end,  a web  that  is  occasionally 
coloured  or  a narrow  braided  selvage.  Upper  end,  a web  with  loose 
warp  fringe  and  sometimes  a braided  selvage.  The  webbing  is  oc- 
casionally turned  back  and  hemmed.  Texture,  very  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Length,  six  to  sixteen  feet.  Width,  one 
quarter  to  three  fifths  length. 


138 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Kermanshahs.  — On  an  ancient  highway  between  Bagdad 
and  Teheran  is  the  city  of  Kermanshah.  As  it  is  situated  near  the 
frontiers  of  northwestern  Persia,  facing  the  Turkish  provinces,  and 
is  surrounded  by  mountains  where  once  wandered  bands  of  homeless 
marauding  Kurds  who  recognised  no  government,  it  was  formerly 
a most  important  stronghold  of  defence.  A century  ago  Robert 
Kerr  Porter,  who  visited  the  city,  referred  to  the  luxurious  gardens 
and  orchards  that  surrounded  it,  and  to  the  villages  of  the  vicinity 
in  which  were  made  “carpets  of  most  beautiful  colour  and  fabric.” 
Within  later  years  the  moat  has  filled  with  rubbish,  the  encircling 
walls  have  crumbled,  and  the  deserted  bazaars  and  caravansaries 
show  that  its  present  population  of  about  twelve  thousand  is  but  a 
small  part  of  what  it  has  been.  With  its  decline  in  political  impor- 
tance followed  a decline  in  industrial  activities ; yet  for  a long  time 
it  remained  a rug-producing  centre  of  importance.  In  1880  Sir 
George  Birdwood  wrote  that  “the  finest  Oriental  rugs  of  our  time, 
which  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  astonished  all  beholders,  are  those 
made  in  the  palace  of  the  Governor  of  Kermanshah,  in  Kurdistan, 
and  are  only  disposed  of  as  presents.*  And  in  1890  a traveller  f 
spoke  of  the  weaving  as  follows:  “It  is  a process  carried  on  in  homes, 
hovels,  and  tents  by  women  and  children.  . . . The  vegetable  dyes 
used  are  soft  and  artistic,  especially  a wonderful  red  and  the  vari- 
ous shades  of  indigo.  The  dull,  rich  tints,  even  when  new,  are  quite 
beautiful.  The  women  pursue  their  work  chiefly  in  odds  and  ends 
of  time,  and  in  some  cases  make  it  much  of  a pastime.” 

From  this  city  and  the  surrounding  hills  are  still  obtained  large 
quantities  of  rugs,  which  follow  the  same  patterns  that  for  years 
have  been  characteristic  of  this  district.  Yet  most  of  the  modern 
Kermanshahs  are  made  elsewhere  in  the  workhouses  of  exporting 
companies.  So  noticeable  is  the  resemblance  in  drawing  and  colour- 
ing of  some  of  them  to  the  Kirmans  of  Southeastern  Persia,  that  they 
are  offered  now  and  then  by  dealers  as  real  Kirmans,  though  they 
lack  the  fine  technique  and  artistic  merit  of  the  latter.  They  possess, 
however,  the  same  wealth  of  floral  expression,  for  throughout  border 
and  field  are  sprays  of  flowers  on  delicate  vines  and  foliate  stalks. 
Most  of  the  pieces  now  seen  contain  at  the  centre  of  the  field  a large 
medallion,  which  may  have  serrated  or  lobed  edges,  be  oval  or  of 
diamond  shape,  and  with  or  without  pendants.  The  corners  are 

* “Industrial  Arts  of  India.” 

f Mrs.  Elizabeth  Bishop  in  “Journeys  in  Persia  and  Kurdistan.” 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


139 


defined  by  lines  that  do  not  always  conform  to  those  of  the  medal- 
lion; and  the  borders  have  always  several  stripes,  of  which  the  main 
one  is  usually  but  little  wider  than  the  others.  In  all  these  different 
parts  are  floral  and  foliage  motives  that  find  expression  in  sun- 
flowers, roses,  tulips,  daisies,  and  many  simpler  forms,  supported 
by  delicate  branching  sprays  and  vines. 

There  are,  however,  other  patterns  less  frequently  met  with, 
as  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  elaborate  pear  designs,  and  sometimes  the 
cypress  or  the  palm  tree  naturalistically  drawn.  Covering  the  field 
of  a rare  old  Kermanshah  recently  seen  were  thirty  large  panels, 
which  like  so  many  small  rugs  contained  central  fields  that  were 
alternately  coloured  blue  and  ivory.  Surrounding  each  of  these  little 
fields,  on  which  were  represented  the  arch  of  a temple  and  the  tree 
of  life,  were  borders  wherein  were  woven  verses  from  the  Koran, 
and  at  the  intersections  of  the  borders  were  floral  designs  like  roses. 
Encircling  all  the  panels  was  a wide  border  containing  escutcheons 
in  which  were  woven  other  verses.  Without  doubt  this  rug  was  used 
for  sacred  purposes.  In  fact,  a larger  proportion  of  Kermanshahs 
than  almost  any  other  Persian  rugs  have  prayer  arches  as  well  as 
verses  from  the  Koran  inscribed  in  some  part  of  them,  but  with  very 
few  exceptions  they  are  recently  woven  and  bear  no  evidence  of 
devotional  usage. 

The  general  colour  scheme  is  distinctive,  for  the  tones  are  much 
lighter  than  those  of  most  other  Persian  rugs.  Frequently  a field 
of  ivory  surrounds  the  central  medallion,  though  sometimes  a 
light  rose  red  is  used.  Other  colours  are  light  blue,  green,  and  buff, 
which  are  softened  by  the  floccy  quality  of  the  excellent  and  moder- 
ately short-clipped  wool.  One  feature  common  to  almost  all  of  them 
is  the  narrow  edging  of  pinkish  red  that  surrounds  the  border. 
This  edging,  the  foliate  scrolls,  the  soft  light  tones,  and  the  rather 
coarse  weaving,  that  leaves  the  white  or  sometimes  pinkish  weft 
exposed  at  the  back,  are  characteristics  by  which  these  rugs  may 
readily  be  distinguished.  As  they  come  in  all  sizes  from  small 
mats  to  large  carpets,  and  have  tones  that  harmonise  with  almost 
any  surroundings,  they  are  a most  popular  class  with  those  who  care 
little  for  association  and  ignore  the  fact  that  they  are  chemically 
washed. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  light  rose  and  ivory, 
also  blue,  green,  and  buff.  Knot,  Sehna.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally 
twelve  to  eighteen,  perpendicularly  eleven  to  eighteen.  The  rows 


140 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  at  back,  but 
the  weft  is  conspicuous.  Warp,  cotton;  one  of  the  two  threads  en- 
circled by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft,  cotton,  of  medium 
diameter,  sometimes  dyed  pink.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  soft  and  of  medium 
length.  Border,  frequently  of  three  stripes  of  almost  equal  width, 
but  sometimes  many  stripes;  also  an  outer  edging  that  is  generally 
red,  but  occasionally  blue.  Sides,  a double  overcasting  in  same  colour 
as  edging.  Lower  end,  a narrow  web  and  warp  loops,  or  short  warp 
fringe.  Upper  end,  a narrow  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture, 
firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  coarse  grain.  Usual  length, 
four  to  fourteen  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  four  fifths  length. 

Western  Kurdistans.  — Within  the  land  lying  between  the 
Anti -Taurus  and  Zagros  mountains,  where  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
rivers  have  their  sources,  dwell  a people  almost  as  untamed  as 
when  in  the  dawn  of  history  they  were  designated  the  “Warriors;” 
or  centuries  later,  under  the  name  “Carduchis,”  opposed  the  retreat 
of  Xenophon  and  his  ten  thousand  Greeks.  Now  they  are  known 
as  “Kurds,”  of  whom  large  numbers,  wild,  brave,  and  hospitable,  live 
a nomadic  life  among  table-lands  partly  covered  with  sycamores 
and  oaks,  or  follow  their  sheep  over  lofty  pine-crowned  mountains, 
that  for  long  months  are  enveloped  in  snow.  Doubtless  the  cheering 
influence  of  green  hillsides  and  the  rich  vegetation  of  innumerable 
valleys,  where  streams  flow  perennially,  is  in  a measure  responsible 
for  their  more  sprightly  aspect  when  contrasted  with  that  of  the 
Persians.  They  recognise  no  law  but  the  will  of  their  chief,  to  whom 
they  maintain  strictest  fealty.  “There  was  up  to  a recent  period 
no  more  picturesque  or  interesting  scene  to  be  witnessed  in  the 
East  than  the  court  of  one  of  these  great  Kurdish  chiefs,  where,  like 
another  Saladin,  the  bey  ruled  in  patriarchial  state,  surrounded 
by  his  clansmen  with  reverence  and  affection,  and  attended  by  a 
body-guard  of  young  Kurdish  warriors,  clad  in  chain  armor,  with 
flaunting  silken  scarfs,  and  bearing  javelin,  lance,  and  sword,  as  in 
the  time  of  the  Crusades.”  * 

Large  numbers,  also,  are  settled  in  Persia,  where  they  cultivate 
the  soil  of  small  tracts  of  land,  or  live  in  villages  of  stone  houses. 
Many  of  them  are  scattered  around  Lake  Urumiah.  Others  have 
made  their  homes  in  the  district  of  Kermanshah,  and  not  a few  have 

* Encyclopedia  Britannica. 


<4  awfe I 


Jjr  ft.  ;*^«:*>-2^r-rrsrifcr , ^r:ir  sHSM***5iSi  * * ihfe-V  *.r  r:^rr-r^~3~«-e  ^ ! 

S?SS^  *♦*♦  WfiSiU  | fct  !wIi»»WitffiM!^»)Wi  MrVfcVt,V,.VW'  W, 


^Wuw  w,<*  ^^MiV^vw' w.  »-■» » j^-^iy ' 


Plate  32.  Melez  Prayer  Hug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


141 


wandered  as  far  as  Khorassan.  But  wherever  they  may  be,  they  are 
distinguished  by  their  appearance;  for  the  men  are  bold  and  hand- 
some, and  the  young  women,  whom  custom  permits  to  appear  un- 
veiled in  public,  are  beautiful  as  well  as  graceful. 

There  is  no  racial  distinction  between  the  Kurds  who  live  the 
pastoral  life  and  those  who  dwell  in  villages,  or  between  the  Kurds 
of  Asiatic  Turkey  and  those  of  Persia;  yet  environment  has  produced 
a marked  difference  in  their  textile  fabrics.  Those  woven  by  the 
tribes  that  live  among  the  mountains  that  encircle  Lake  Van  and 
extend  to  the  north  of  Diarbekr  embody  the  wild  characteristics  of 
the  weavers.  They  are  strong  and  coarse,  with  close  weave,  long 
nap,  and  bold  patterns,  that  suggest  Caucasian  influence  devoid  of 
artistic  feeling.  In  some  of  them  is  a large  central  diamond  or 
lozenge  surrounded  by  latcli-hooks,  as  well  as  floral  forms  so  conven- 
tionalised as  to  be  purely  geometric;  now  and  then  Arabic  symbols 
and  letters  are  scattered  over  the  field.  Moreover,  the  colours  lack 
the  delicate  shades  of  Persian  rugs,  but  possess  rich,  strong  hues 
obtained  from  native  dyes  that  applied  to  the  excellent  wool  give  it 
a warm,  lustrous  appearance.  Brown  is  very  largely  used.  There 
are  also  dark  reds  and  blues  brightened  by  dashes  of  white  and 
yellow.  Only  the  Kazaks,  Tcherkess,  and  one  or  two  Asia  Minor 
weaves  are  trimmed  with  such  long  nap,  which,  together  with  the 
deep  colours  and  long  shaggy  fringe,  give  these  pieces  a semi-barbaric 
appearance  possessed  by  no  other  rugs.  Sometimes  they  are  con- 
fused with  the  Mosuls;  but  as  a rule  the  pile  is  longer,  and  they  are 
more  coarsely  woven.  In  fact,  the  yarn  is  so  coarse  that  it  is  not 
unusual  to  see  pieces  with  only  thirty  or  forty  knots  to  the  square 
inch.  Like  the  Persian-Kurdish  rugs,  they  rarely  come  in  large,  al- 
most square  shapes,  and  are  frequently  decidedly  oblong.  They  may, 
however,  easily  be  distinguished  from  them  by  their  cruder  patterns, 
darker  colours,  coarser  texture,  and  the  fact  that  each  of  the  two 
threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  the 
back. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  brown,  red,  and  blue, 
with  minor  quantities  of  yellow,  green,  and  white,  and  the  natural 
colour  of  the  undyed  wool.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  hori- 
zontally four  to  seven ; perpendicularly,  six  to  nine.  A half  knot, 
as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as,  or  longer  than,  wide.  The  rows 
of  knots  are  closely  pressed  down.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two 
threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft, 


142 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


wool,  of  coarse  diameter,  and  often  dyed  a reddish  colour.  A thread 
of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool, 
occasionally  camel’s  or  goat’s  hair  clipped  long.  Border,  generally 
of  three  stripes.  Sides,  a heavy  double  overcasting,  usually  in  brown 
or  black,  occasionally  in  several  different  colours.  Lower  end,  a 
narrow  web,  through  which  runs  a coloured  cord,  and  warp  loops. 
Upper  end,  a narrow  web,  one  or  more  rows  of  knots  and  long, 
coarse  warp  fringe.  Texture,  very  stout.  Weave  at  back  is  of  very 
coarse  grain.  Length , five  to  sixteen  feet.  Width,  two  fifths  to  two 
thirds  length. 

Persian  Kurdistans.  — Nowhere  is  the  influence  of  associa- 
tion among  weavers  more  evident  than  in  the  Kurdish  rugs  woven 
by  the  tribes  settled  in  the  rich  valleys  of  Northwestern  Persia, 
as  is  apparent  in  weave,  colours,  and  pattern,  which  differ  widely  from 
those  seen  in  the  Kurdish  rugs  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  warp  is  only 
rarely  of  coarse  goats’  hair,  and  is  generally  soft,  brown  wool.  The 
pile  is  much  shorter,  so  that  the  drawing  is  clearly  defined.  Like- 
wise, the  colours  are  more  varied  and  of  more  delicate  tones  so  as  to 
include  lighter  shades  of  green,  rose,  and  ivory  with  the  darker  reds, 
blues,  and  browns.  But  the  chief  distinction  consists  of  the  more 
artistic  pattern.  The  medallion  in  the  centre  of  the  field  with  corner 
pieces  in  which  appear  some  form  of  repetitive  pattern  is  most  com- 
mon. Instead  of  large  figures  are  often  the  more  dainty  Herati  designs 
borrowed  from  the  Feraghans  and  the  Sehnas,  or  the  pear  design 
from  the  Sarabends.  Now  and  then  is  seen  a rare  old  piece  with 
field  completely  covered  with  drawings  of  the  tree  of  life  and  strange 
floral  conceits;  but  the  pattern  that  is  pre-eminently  typical  of  this 
type  of  Kurdish  pieces  is  the  Mina  Khani,  though  it  is  occasionally 
adopted  in  other  rugs.  The  white  and  yellowish  flowers,  connected 
by  a lattice  work  sub-pattern  of  brown  or  olive,  rests  on  a ground 
of  dark  blue,  that  in  accordance  with  a feature  peculiar  to  rugs 
of  Kurdish  weaves  varies  from  one  end  of  the  field  to  the  other,  so 
as  to  suggest  that  their  wandering  life  often  made  it  difficult  to  ob- 
tain the  roots  and  herbs  necessary  to  produce  similar  shades.  As 
is  rarely  the  case  with  other  patterns,  the  naturalistic  flowers  that 
are  pendent  from  the  undulating  vine  of  the  main  stripe  and  the 
flowers  of  the  field  have  nearly  the  same  drawing.  The  two  remain- 
ing stripes  of  the  narrow  border  have  most  simple  vines. 

Almost  without  exception  rugs  of  this  class  are  stoutly  woven. 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


143 


To  assure  firmness,  one  thread  of  warp  is  depressed  below  the  other 
in  tying  the  knots ; and  the  weft  that  is  thrown  across  for  filling  is  of 
fair  quality.  On  account  of  the  firm  texture,  excellent  wool,  and  good 
colours  it  is  still  possible  to  obtain  moderately  old  pieces,  that  as 
objects  of  utility  as  well  as  ornament  are  desirable  for  their  sterling 
qualities. 

A similarity  exists  between  the  Persian-Kurdish,  Mosul,  and 
Bijar  rugs;  but  a precise,  even  if  easily  overlooked,  difference  in  the 
weave  serves  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  As  may  be  seen 
by  examining  the  backs  of  typical  specimens,  in  Mosuls  every  thread 
of  warp  lies  in  the  same  plane  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  pile; 
in  the  Persian  Kurdistans  one  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled 
by  a knot  is  depressed  at  an  acute  angle  to  that  plane;  and  in  Bi- 
jars one  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled 
under  the  other  so  as  to  be  at  right  angles  to  that  plane. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  also 
yellow,  green,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizon- 
tally seven  to  ten;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  twelve.  A half  knot, 
as  it  appears  at  back,  is  no  longer  than  wide  and  is  frequently  not 
so  long.  The  yarn  is  loosely  woven,  so  that  each  separate  ply  is 
distinct.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is 
largely  concealed  and  the  weft  partly  hidden  at  back.  Warp,  wool; 
one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  generally  much  de- 
pressed below  the  other  at  back;  but  sometimes  each  is  equally 
prominent.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
usually  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  only  rarely 
once.  Pile,  wool,  and  occasionally  some  camel’s  hair  of  medium 
length.  Border,  three  to  four  stripes.  Sides,  a heavy  double  over- 
casting in  dark  colour.  Lower  end,  web  crossed  by  a parti-coloured 
cord,  and  warp  loops.  Upper  end,  web  crossed  by  a parti-coloured 
cord,  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Texture,  very  firm.  Weave  at  back  is 
of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  six  to  twelve  feet.  Usual  width, 
five  eighths  to  two  thirds  length. 

Karajes.  — Dwelling  near  Hamadan,  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  Persia,  are  tribes  who  weave  rugs  that  are  known  in  the  markets 
as  Karajes.  In  their  colour  scheme,  length  of  nap,  and  texture  they 
resemble  many  of  the  Kurdistans;  but  in  the  technicalities  of  weave 
they  show  a marked  difference.  As  a rule,  a single  thread  of  weft 
crosses  only  once  between  two  rows  of  knots,  or  in  a few  pieces  two 


144 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


threads  of  weft  pass  side  by  side  as  though  one.  In  this  particular 
they  resemble  Hamadans;  but  the  alignment  of  their  knots  at  the 
back  is  more  regular,  their  weft  is  inserted  with  some  slack,  their 
warp  is  of  wool,  and  their  weft  is  almost  always  of  wool.  They  are 
generally  runners,  with  long  nap  of  soft,  lustrous  wool,  with  rich 
colours,  and  with  border  of  three  stripes.  The  pattern  is  Iranian, 
and  very  often  consists  of  a small  bush  or  sprig  of  leaf  and  flower 
disposed  in  formal  array  throughout  the  field.  Sometimes  the 
floral  forms  are  placed  within  the  diamonds  formed  by  a trellis 
pattern,  but  more  frequently  they  are  arranged  in  rows  like  the  pear 
designs  of  Sarabends.  In  some  pieces  they  are  very  much  con- 
ventionalised and  suggest  similar  figures  seen  in  rugs  of  Southern 
Caucasia;  and  in  others  stem,  leaf,  and  flower  are  very  realistic. 
Another  pattern  frequently  followed  consists  of  three  or  four  large 
diamond-shaped  medallions  extending  from  one  end  of  the  field  to 
the  other.  The  borders  are  moderately  narrow,  and  an  undulating 
vine  of  well-known  Persian  character  generally  appears  in  one  or 
more  of  the  stripes.  As  these  pieces  are  almost  always  comparatively 
old,  the  vegetable  dyes  that  were  used  for  colouring  have  mellowed, 
and  have  a richness  of  tone  that  is  accentuated  by  the  depth  of  pile 
and  softness  of  wool.  The  prevailing  tone  of  many  is  a deep  plum 
colour. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  blue  or  plum 
and  red,  with  minor  quantities  of  yellow,  brown,  and  white.  Knot, 
Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  twelve;  perpendicularly, 
seven  to  twelve.  A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as 
wide,  and  occasionally  is  longer.  The  rows  of  knots,  which  have 
even  alignment  at  back,  are  not  firmly  pressed  down.  Warp,  wool, 
rarely  cotton;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally 
prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  rarely  cotton;  a single  thread  of 
medium  diameter  crosses  once  between  every  two  rows  of  knots; 
but  in  parts  of  the  same  rug  two,  three,  or  even  four  threads  of  small 
diameter  will  cross  side  by  side  as  a single  coarse  thread.  Occasion- 
ally a thread  of  weft  crosses  three  or  four  times.  The  filling  of  weft 
stands  up  as  high  as  the  knots  at  the  back,  giving  an  even  surface. 
Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length  or  moderately  long.  Border,  of  three 
stripes.  Sides,  a heavy  double  overcasting.  Lower  end,  web  and  warp 
loops.  Upper  end,  web  and  short  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  loose. 
Weave  at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  eight  to  fourteen 
feet.  Usual  width,  three  eighths  to  one  half  length. 


Plate  33.  Melez  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


145 


Tabriz.  — Although  Tabriz,  capital  of  the  province  of  Azer- 
bijan,  is  situated  in  a remote  corner  of  Persia,  from  the  earliest 
times  it  has  been  one  of  the  most  important  centres  in  the  Orient 
for  the  production  of  carpets.  They  were  well  known  in  the  days 
of  the  Caliphs;  and  some  of  the  earliest  masterpieces  that  now 
remain  were  woven  there  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Tamasp,  who 
extended  to  this  industry  his  royal  patronage.  This  city  has  been 
for  a long  period  on  the  great  routes  of  caravans  passing  to  Treb- 
izond  and  Tiflis  from  the  country  to  the  south  and  east,  so  that 
it  has  become  the  principal  mart  of  Persia  for  the  export  of  rugs 
gathered  from  surrounding  regions.  Nevertheless,  it  still  continues 
to  produce  its  own  pieces;  but  the  weavers  are  in  the  employ  of 
foreign  companies  who  prescribe  the  character  of  workmanship. 
As  a consequence,  the  rugs  are  of  good  material,  excellently  woven; 
and  though  many  of  the  old  dyes  are  no  longer  used,  the  colours 
as  a rule  are  fair;  yet  on  account  of  the  mathematical  exactness  of 
their  formal  patterns  the  truly  Oriental  spirit  is  largely  lacking. 

Since  the  rugs  are  made  solely  to  meet  the  requirements  of  Western 
buyers,  the  patterns  are  various.  Most  of  them  consist  of  a large 
central  medallion  surrounded  by  a broad  field  of  ivory,  blue,  or  red 
that  extends  to  the  sides  and  ends.  In  others,  a small  diamond 
occupies  the  centre  and  is  surrounded  by  a series  of  concentric  medal- 
lions. Although  in  these  respects  they  correspond  with  Kerman- 
shahs,  Sarouks,  and  Kashans,  the  patterns  of  their  fields  lack  the 
long  scrolls  and  interlacing  branches,  and  consist  frequently  of  short, 
slender  stems  supporting  fronds,  leaves,  flowers,  or  the  pear  de- 
signs arranged  so  as  to  present  almost  the  appearance  of  lace-work. 
Sometimes  the  drawing  is  a delicate  tracery  representing  inter- 
twining arabesques.  A field  completely  covered  with  the  small 
designs  peculiar  to  Sehnas,  or  containing  the  disjunct  forms  of 
nomadic  rugs,  is  never  seen;  and  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that 
many  of  the  early  Tabriz  weavers  were  Kurds.  Sometimes  the 
flowers  are  similar  to  the  roses  of  Kirmans,  or  are  realistically  drawn 
composite  surrounded  by  delicate  leaves  on  graceful  stems;  some- 
times the  small  designs  are  as  formal  as  the  palmettes  of  old  Ispa- 
hans,  from  which  they  were  doubtless  copied;  again,  the  natural- 
istic and  conventional  may  be  blended  together  in  an  harmonious 
whole.  But  whatever  the  pattern,  the  different  parts  show  the 
perfect  balance  so  frequently  seen  in  the  antique  pieces  of  three  or 
four  centuries  ago.  Nevertheless,  to  these  types  are  many  excep- 


146 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


tions,  since  the  weavers  will  produce  for  hire  any  class  of  rug  or 
copy  any  coloured  drawing. 

The  borders  differ  from  those  of  Kermanshahs,  with  which  these 
rugs  are  frequently  compared,  in  the  fact  that  in  their  central  stripe 
the  continuous  vine  of  leaf  and  flower  is  less  conspicuous;  and 
in  its  place  are  often  palmettes,  pears,  shrubs,  or  formal  trees  sepa- 
rated by  foliated  scrolls.  Not  infrequently  the  smaller  stripes,  also, 
have  a repetitive  pattern  of  leaf  and  flower,  though  in  some  of  the 
many  stripes  is  usually  a well-drawn  vine.  Again,  the  border  may 
consist  of  a series  of  cartouches  that  have  been  copied  from  much 
older  rugs  and  contain  verses  of  the  Koran  or  of  Persian  poets. 
Within  recent  years  this  tendency  among  the  Tabriz  and  Ker- 
manshah  weavers  to  imitate  not  only  borders  but  also  fields  of 
old  masterpieces  is  increasing. 

A feature  peculiar  to  a very  large  number  of  these  rugs  is  the 
adoption  of  very  finely  spun  linen  for  the  warp;  though  cotton, 
which  is  used  for  the  weft,  is  sometimes  substituted.  The  knots 
are  carefully  tied,  and  the  closely  woven  texture  presents  an  appear- 
ance at  the  back  similar  to  that  of  Sarouks;  but  the  almost  concealed 
weft  is  generally  either  white  or  pink.  The  weave  compared  with 
that  of  Kermanshahs  is  finer,  but  the  wool  of  the  closely  shorn  nap 
is  neither  so  soft  to  the  touch  nor  so  silky,  the  colours  are  harsher, 
and  the  patterns  more  formal.  These  rugs  are  made  in  all  sizes, 
though  most  are  large  and  almost  square. 

Type  characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  ivory. 
Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  twelve  to  twenty; 
perpendicularly,  ten  to  twenty-two.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed 
down,  so  that  the  warp  is  hidden  and  the  weft  partly  concealed 
at  back.  Warp,  generally  cotton,  frequently  linen;  one  of  the  two 
threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft, 
as  a rule,  is  cotton,  occasionally  it  is  wool  or  linen,  of  fine  diameter, 
and  frequently  dyed  pink.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between 
every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  clipped  short  and  harsh  to  the 
touch.  Border,  from  five  to  eight  stripes  and  an  outer  edging.  Sides, 
a two-cord  selvage.  Both  ends,  a narrow  web  and  loose  warp  fringe. 
Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  fine  texture.  Usual  length , 
nine  to  eighteen  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  four  fifths  length. 

Gorevans.  — Of  the  many  rugs  now  made  in  Persia  and  designed 
primarily  for  use,  few  are  of  such  moderate  price  as  the  Gorevans, 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


147 


which,  during  recent  years,  have  been  imported  in  large  numbers 
from  the  province  of  Azerbijan  in  Northwestern  Persia.  A hasty 
glance  suggests  Occidental  craftsmanship,  but  in  every  essential 
they  are  distinctly  Oriental.  Their  stout  weave,  large  size,  and  nearly 
square  shape  place  them  in  the  class  of  Persian  pieces  often  called 
carpets,  to  which  belong  the  Kermanshahs,  Muskabads,  Mesheds, 
and  rugs  of  Tabriz.  Yet  they  are  frequently  larger  than  any  of  these, 
and  are  readily  distinguished  from  them  by  their  colours  and  pat- 
terns. It  is  true  that  they  have  the  same  light  shades,  but  the  tones 
are  in  a distinctly  different  scale,  consisting  principally  of  dull  brick- 
red,  light  terra  cotta,  buff,  dark  blue,  dull  green,  yellow,  and  ivory, 
which,  when  once  recognised,  are  rarely  mistaken  for  those  of  any 
other  rugs.  Nor  are  the  colours  distributed  in  patches  so  small  as 
to  blend  when  viewed  at  a short  distance,  but  are  of  sufficient  masses 
to  be  separately  observed  and  analysed. 

The  patterns  are  equally  distinctive.  The  field  is  generally 
covered  with  a number  of  concentric  hexagonal-shaped  medallions, 
of  which  the  longer  sides  of  the  largest  are  often  marked  with  con- 
spicuous indentations  such  as  are  not  seen  in  classes  made  in  other 
districts.  All  of  the  medallions  are  covered  with  large  designs,  in 
which  the  artist  has  departed  from  the  usual  forms  of  vine,  leaf, 
and  flower,  that  poorly  imitate  the  splendid  examples  of  so-called 
“Ispahans,”  and  in  many  instances  has  represented  them  in  the 
archaic  drawing  of  the  oldest  remaining  Persian  carpets.  Hard, 
straight  lines  with  angles  replacing  graceful  curves  define  the  medal- 
lions, corners,  stems,  leaves,  and  flowers.  And  not  infrequently 
the  formal  treatment  shows  a European  influence,  as  when  all  sem- 
blance of  leaf  and  flower  has  disappeared  in  the  extremely  conven- 
tionalised forms  that  are  placed  with  set  regularity  in  the  field. 
A very  noticeable  feature  of  these  rugs  is  the  manner  in  which  the 
designs  are  coloured,  as  it  is  not  unusual  to  represent  a large  figure 
in  two  strongly  contrasting  colours,  as  blue  and  pink  separated  by 
a stiffly  drawn  line. 

The  designs  of  the  corners  are  similar  to  those  of  the  central 
medallions,  but  the  designs  of  the  borders  are  dissimilar.  The 
small  stripes  are  marked  with  Persian  vines  of  well-known  floral 
and  leaf  forms  that  show  nothing  of  the  drawing  characteristic 
of  the  field.  The  main  stripe  occasionally  has  cartouches  and  star 
medallions,  but  in  most  instances  has  the  turtle  pattern,  though 
its  treatment  differs  from  the  usual  form  seen  in  Feraghans.  A 


148 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


co-ordination  in  colour  exists  between  field  and  border.  The  ground 
of  both  the  main  stripe  and  one  of  the  medallions  is  often  a dark 
blue  or  a red,  while  the  ground  of  the  other  stripes  corresponds 
with  those  of  other  medallions. 

All  of  the  Gorevans  are  modern  pieces,  and  so  lack  the  interest 
of  those  that  follow  traditional  patterns;  but  their  stout  weave, 
warm  colours,  and  archaic  designs  make  them  both  serviceable 
and  pleasing. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours , principally  dull  red,  dark  blue, 
and  buff,  with  minor  quantities  of  green,  yellow,  and  white.  Knot, 
Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  eight;  perpendicularly, 
six  to  ten.  The  most  conspicuous  half  of  a knot,  as  it  appears  at 
the  back,  is,  as  a rule,  longer  than  wide.  The  rows  of  knots  are  some- 
what pressed  down,  but  the  warp  is  rarely  entirely  concealed  at 
back.  Warp,  cotton;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot 
is  usually  depressed  below  the  other  at  back;  sometimes  both  threads 
are  equally  prominent.  Weft,  cotton,  of  coarse  diameter,  sometimes 
dyed  blue.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  only  once  between  every  two 
rows  of  knots,  or  frequently  twice.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length. 
Border,  generally  of  three  stripes,  occasionally  four  or  five.  Sides, 
a two-cord  double  selvage.  Both  ends,  a short  warp  fringe.  Tex- 
ture, rather  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  very  coarse  grain.  Usual 
length,  ten  to  sixteen  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three  quarters 
length. 

Bakshis.  — A close  relationship  exists  between  the  Gorevans, 
which  are  a comparatively  modern  product,  and  several  other  less 
known  sub-classes  of  earlier  origin  that  are  woven  in  small  towns 
in  the  east  central  part  of  the  province  of  Azerbijan.  One  of  these 
towns,  located  fifty  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Tabriz,  is  Bakshis, 
which  formerly  produced  rugs  that  were  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Persians,  before  the  weavers  were  corrupted  by  a spirit  of  commer- 
cialism. Those  which  are  exported  to-day  are  of  little  artistic  value, 
are  poorly  coloured,  and  carelessly  woven.  The  patterns  are  inferior 
copies  of  other  well-known  classes. 

Serapis.  — The  rugs  known  as  Serapis  are  named  after  the  village 
of  Sirab  in  the  mountainous  district  between  Tabriz  and  Ardebil; 
but  they  are  made  not  only  there,  but  also  in  the  country  farther  to 
the  east.  The  large  sizes  are  frequently  mistaken  for  Gorevans,  as 


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Plate  3-P  Rhodian  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


149 


they  are  of  similar  shape  and  have  similar  finish  of  sides  and  ends, 
yet  as  a rule  they  are  better  woven.  Many  of  them  follow  the  same 
patterns  of  concentric  medallions,  but  the  lines  of  others  are  more 
artistically  drawn.  Although  the  borders  lack  the  gracefully  sym- 
metric vines  of  old  Iranian  pieces,  the  drawing  is  interesting  in  its 
individuality  and  is  in  harmony  with  that  of  the  field.  All  the 
colours  are  cheerful.  A field  of  ivory  or  some  light  shade  of  buff 
usually  surrounds  the  central  medallions,  on  which  appear  soft 
and  pleasing  tones  of  smaller  designs.  Yet  on  the  whole  there  is  a 
tendency  to  employ  richer  and  deeper  tones  than  those  of  Gorevans. 
The  smaller  pieces  often  contain  more  elaborate  patterns,  but  there 
are  always  the  same  pleasing  and  unobtrusive  shades  of  colour. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  ivory, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green  and  yellow.  Knot,  generally  Selina, 
frequently  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  ten;  per- 
pendicularly, seven  to  twelve.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed 
down,  so  that  the  warp  does  not  show  at  back.  Warp,  cotton; 
one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  generally  much  depressed 
below  the  other  at  back,  and  frequently  doubled  under  the  other. 
Weft,  cotton,  of  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length. 
Border,  three  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage  of  two  cords,  or  double 
overcasting  attached  figure-eight  fashion  to  the  sides.  The  selvage 
or  overcasting  is  usually  in  red  or  buff.  Lower  end,  a narrow  web 
and  warp  loops  or  short  warp  fringe.  Upper  end,  a narrow  web  and 
warp  fringe.  Texture,  stout.  Weave  at  back  is  of  coarse  grain. 
Usual  length,  ten  to  eighteen  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  three 
quarters  length. 

Herez.  — The  city  of  Ilerez  is  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of 
the  province  of  Azerbijan,  where  for  a long  time  the  weavers  steadily 
adhered  to  the  sterling  values  of  early  fabrics  and  produced  pieces 
that  were  followed  with  slight  modification  in  many  of  the  former 
Gorevans.  In  a measure  the  rugs  of  Tabriz  also  are  reflected  in 
the  medallion  pattern  of  some  of  these  pieces,  but  for  their  grace- 
fully flowing  lines  are  substituted  more  rectangular  ones;  and  in 
place  of  many  colours  are  few,  of  which  blue  and  a reddish  copper 
are  particularly  noticeable.  Another  well-known  and  interesting 
type  consists  of  a field  of  white,  on  which,  with  formal  precision, 
are  represented,  in  delicate  shades  of  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  green, 


150 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


archaic  leaves  and  flowers  supported  by  stems  and  tendrils  that  are 
so  conventionalised  as  to  form  geometric  lines  and  angles.  At 
regular  intervals  the  branching  tendrils  assume  the  shape  of  arches, 
of  which  in  larger  pieces  there  are  frequently  one  or  two  dozen; 
and  so  closely  do  they  resemble  prayer  arches  that  these  rugs  are 
sometimes  mistaken  for  namazliks.  The  borders  usually  consist 
of  three  stripes.  The  outer  and  inner  are  narrow  guards  containing 
some  simple  floral  figure,  and  the  broad  central  stripe  has  often  a con- 
tinuous vine  with  formal  leaves  and  a conspicuous  design  suggestive 
of  the  cloud-band.  The  tones  are  never  harsh;  many  of  the  pieces 
are  large  and  almost  square,  and  the  wool  of  the  pile  is  generally 
excellent. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  ivory,  light  blue, 
and  reddish  brown,  also  some  yellow  and  green.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  ten;  perpendicularly,  six  to  twelve. 
The  most  conspicuous  half  of  a knot,  as  it  appears  at  the  back,  is 
longer  than  wide.  The  rows  of  knots  are  only  slightly  pressed  down, 
so  that  the  weft  is  noticeable  at  back.  Warp,  cotton;  one  of  the  two 
threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the  other  at  back, 
or  each  thread  is  equally  prominent.  W eft,  of  cotton,  seldom  of  wool, 
of  moderately  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length. 
Border,  generally  of  three  stripes.  Sides,  a two-cord  double  selvage. 
Lower  end,  a very  narrow  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Upper  end, 
a short  warp  fringe.  Texture,  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  very  coarse 
grain.  Usual  length,  nine  to  fifteen  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds 
to  seven  eighths  length. 

Suj-Bulaks.  — About  fifty  miles  to  the  south  of  Lake  Urumiah 
and  the  same  distance  from  the  western  boundary  of  Persia  is  the 
old  Kurdish  capital  of  Suj-Bulak.  Kurds  still  largely  predominate 
in  the  district  and  comprise  most  of  the  population  of  the  city, 
to  the  discomfort  of  the  much  smaller  number  of  Persians,  for  whose 
protection  a large  garrison  was  formerly  maintained.  Accordingly, 
the  rugs  made  in  this  vicinity  are  strongly  characteristic  of  Kurdish 
pieces  in  the  strong  texture,  the  excellent  quality  of  wool,  the  rich, 
dark  colours,  the  finish  of  sides  and  ends.  The  patterns  also  are 
largely  Kurdish,  but  frequently  show  the  influence  of  Persian 
association. 

In  typical  old  pieces  deep  reds  and  blues  are  largely  used.  One 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


151 


of  them  is  generally  the  ground  colour  of  the  central  field,  and  shows 
the  Kurdish  influence  by  a gradual  shading  from  end  to  end;  the 
other  appears  in  the  overlying  pattern,  which  partakes  of  a floral 
character.  The  drawing  sometimes  represents  flowering  plants, 
such  as  the  rose  bush,  arranged  in  perpendicular  rows  and  bright- 
ened by  tints  of  white,  green,  or  yellow.  Detached  flowers  not  in- 
frequently line  the  edges  of  the  field.  The  wide  borders  also,  as  a 
rule,  have  vines  and  floral  forms. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red  and  blue, 
with  minor  quantities  of  brown,  green,  yellow,  and  ivory.  Knot, 
Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  ten;  perpendicu- 
larly, eight  to  twelve.  The  rows  of  knots  are,  as  a rule,  pressed  down, 
so  that  the  alignment  of  each  half  knot  is  very  uneven;  but  fre- 
quently this  feature  is  not  regularly  maintained  in  all  parts  of  the 
same  rug,  so  that  here  and  there  the  warp  is  noticeable  at  back. 
Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  generally 
equally  prominent  at  back,  but  occasionally  one  is  depressed  below 
the  other.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium 
length.  Border,  of  three  to  four  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage  of 
two  or  three  cords  in  blue,  red,  or  brown.  Lower  end,  a web  through 
which  runs  a parti-coloured  cord,  and  a warp  fringe.  Frequently 
there  is  a braided  selvage  in  addition  to  the  web.  Upper  end,  the 
same  as  lower,  excepting  that  the  web  is  occasionally  turned  back 
and  hemmed.  Texture,  moderately  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly 
coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  six  to  seven  feet.  Usual  width,  two 
fifths  to  three  fifths  length. 

Karadaghs.  — In  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of  Persia, 
between  the  city  of  Tabriz  and  the  river  Aras,  is  a mountain  range 
called  Kara  Dagh,  which  signifies  the  “ Black  Mountain.”  On  its 
slopes  and  in  the  adjoining  valleys  rugs  have  been  woven  for  at 
least  several  hundred  years,  and  at  one  time  were  well  known  in 
Europe,  but  few  have  reached  this  country.  Most  of  them  are 
produced  for  home  use,  so  that  they  are,  as  a rule,  well  woven, 
of  good  material,  and  of  vegetable  dyes.  They  resemble  in  colour 
scheme,  weave,  and  finish  of  sides  and  ends  the  rugs  of  Karabagh, 
which  immediately  adjoins  this  district  on  the  north.  Indeed,  in 
no  other  rugs  of  Persia  are  the  traditions  of  Iranian  weavers  so  much 
disregarded  and  Caucasian  ideas  so  closely  followed. 


152 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


The  field  of  many  of  these  rugs  is  completely  covered  with 
conventionalised  flowers  of  several  different  colours,  so  arranged 
that  diagonal  lines  are  of  similar  colours.  Sometimes  it  is  covered 
with  a pattern  of  hexagonal-shaped  figures  containing  geometric 
forms  or  conventionalised  floral  designs.  Again,  it  may  contain  the 
Herati  pattern  or  one  similar  to  the  Mina-Khani.  In  fact,  some 
repetitive  pattern  of  small  design  is  the  usual  type;  but  now  and 
then  some  form  of  pole  medallion,  which  the  weavers  have  learned 
from  their  more  southern  neighbours,  is  substituted.  The  patterns 
of  the  borders  are  either  mechanically  drawn  vines  or  contain  geo- 
metric figures  characteristic  of  Caucasian  pieces.  For  guard  stripes 
the  reciprocal  trefoil  is  constantly  used. 

The  colour  scheme  is  generally  bright  and  pleasing.  A favourite 
colour  for  the  field  is  blue  or  a camel’s  hair  yellow;  sometimes  rose 
is  seen.  The  nap  of  modern  pieces  is  medium  long  and  of  old  pieces 
is  short.  The  weave  of  the  latter  is  excellent,  so  that  the  closely 
pressed  knots  and  stout  threads  of  weft  make  at  the  back  an  even 
surface  unlike  the  coarse  appearance  of  many  mgs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  yellow,  green, 
and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to 
eleven;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  eleven.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not 
firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  appears  at  back,  and  the  weft 
is  prominent.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  threads  encircled  by  a knot 
is  equally  distinct  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  coarse  diameter,  occa- 
sionally dyed.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two 
rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  moderate  length.  Border,  three  to 
six  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords.  Both  ends, 
a narrow  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm. 
Weave  at  back  is  of  rather  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  nine 
feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

Mosuls.  — Near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Nineveh,  on  the  bank  of 
the  Tigris,  is  the  city  of  Mosul.  Once  it  was  not  only  an  important 
mart  for  wares  carried  up  and  down  the  river,  and  for  vast  caravans 
from  east  and  west,  but  it  became  noted  for  its  textiles  from  which 
was  derived  the  name  “muslin.”  At  length  on  account  of  pestilence, 
misrule,  and  the  sack  of  armies  its  population  and  industries  have 
dwindled;  though  it  is  still  the  capital  and  commercial  centre  of  a 
district  that  lies  between  the  high  table-lands  surrounding  Lake  Van 
and  the  low  plains  of  Bagdad,  and  that  extends  across  the  Mesopo- 


Plate 


Konieii  Prayer  Rug 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


153 


tamian  valley  to  the  mountain  ridges  bordering  Western  Persia. 
Within  this  extensive  area  are  large  stretches  of  rich  pasture,  where 
Abraham  once  fed  his  flocks,  and  where  each  year  Kurdish  nomads 
from  the  north  drive  their  sheep  when  the  winter  snows  cover  their 
own  hillsides.  Arabs,  Turks,  Armenians,  Jews,  and  Christians 
likewise  mingle  with  the  natives,  so  that  the  population  is  as  mixed 
as  can  be  found  anywhere  in  the  Orient. 

Thus  it  happens  that  the  rugs  marketed  in  the  city  of  Mosul 
are  made  by  different  races  and  show  great  diversity  of  character. 
It  would,  indeed,  be  often  difficult  to  distinguish  them  if  the  weave 
were  disregarded;  for  though  they  are  prone  to  yellow  and  russet 
hues,  and  the  long  wool  is  floccy  as  well  as  lustrous,  there  is  no  pattern 
that  can  be  considered  truly  typical.  Many  of  them  borrow  Cau- 
casian designs,  such  as  stars,  latch-hooks,  diagonal  bands,  and  barber- 
pole  stripes.  Others  have  patterns  adopted  almost  bodily  from 
Kurdish  pieces.  But  however  much  the  nomadic  rugs  are  copied, 
a Persian  influence  is  always  shown  by  the  way  in  which  the  severer 
features  are  softened.  In  fact,  a very  large  percentage  of  rugs 
that  come  from  Mosul  are  made  by  the  tribes  that  wander  as  far 
east  as  the  great  mountain  divides  along  the  borders  of  Western 
Persia,  and  adopt  patterns  and  colour  schemes  current  in  Azerbijan 
and  Ardelan.  It  accordingly  happens  that  medallion  patterns 
resembling  those  of  Bijars,  but  with  bolder  and  less  graceful  out- 
lines, are  seen.  More  frequently  the  field  is  covered  with  small 
figures  common  to  Feraghans,  as  well  as  with  the  well-known  pear 
designs;  but  the  former  are  coarsely  drawn,  and  the  latter  lack 
the  gracefully  rounded  lines  seen  in  Sarabends  and  are  often  as 
geometric  as  those  of  the  Baku  rugs.  Somewhere  in  almost  all  these 
pieces  appears  evidence  of  some  conventionalised  floral  form;  but 
now  and  then  a rare  old  piece  is  found  which  was  woven  in  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia,  with  field  completely  covered  with  a naturalis- 
tically  drawn  tulip  that  grows  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Its  bright  flowers  and  leaves,  supported  by  a deli- 
cate stalk,  constitute  one  of  the  most  beautiful  designs  seen  in 
any  rug. 

The  borders  are  rarely  wide,  and  generally  consist  of  three 
stripes,  one  of  which  usually  has  some  simple  vine,  and  the  others  some 
well-known  geometric  pattern.  It  is,  also,  not  unusual  to  find  an  outer 
edging  surrounding  the  border.  In  a few  of  these  pieces  camel’s 
hair  is  used  even  to  the  extent  of  occupying  the  whole  field;  and  goat's 


154 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


hair  or  sheep’s  wool,  dyed  to  a similar  colour,  is  constantly  employed. 
One  of  the  most  usual  colours  is  some  shade  of  yellow.  Reddish 
hues  also  prevail.  These  rugs  frequently  have  the  same  pleasing 
effect  of  slightly  graduated  changes  so  common  in  the  ground  colour 
of  Kurdistans,  but  as  a whole  the  colour  scheme  is  lighter.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  follow  the  shading  adopted  in  Persian  rugs, 
which  in  a measure  eliminates  the  sudden  transition  between  ad- 
jacent areas  of  strongly  contrasting  colour  so  noticeable  in  nomadic 
pieces.  On  account  of  the  present  remoteness  of  the  Mosul  district 
from  important  highways  of  travel,  many  excellent  pieces,  which 
with  careful  use  should  acquire  the  rich  tones  of  those  now  old, 
are  still  woven  there. 

Type  Characteristics . Colours,  principally  yellow  and  brownish 
red,  with  minor  quantities  of  blue,  green,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  seven;  perpendicularly,  seven  to 
nine.  A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  and 
frequently  longer.  The  yarn  is  not  drawn  tightly  against  the  warp. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  con- 
cealed at  back.  Warp,  almost  always  wool,  rarely  cotton;  each  of 
the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back. 
Weft,  generally  of  wool,  of  coarse  diameter  and  frequently  dyed 
red  or  orange,  but  occasionally  of  cotton.  As  a rule,  a thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  two  rows  of  knots,  but  sometimes  crosses 
only  once;  or  two  or  three  threads  cross  side  by  side,  as  in  Karajes. 
Pile,  wool  and  occasionally  camel’s  hair,  of  medium  length.  Border, 
of  three  stripes  with  frequently  an  outer  edging  of  solid  colour. 
Sides  are  generally  a heavy  double  overcasting,  but  in  a few  pieces 
there  is  a two-cord  weft  selvage  or  double  selvage.  Lower  end,  a web. 
Upper  end,  a web  and  warp  fringe;  occasionally  there  is  a heavy 
braided  selvage,  or  the  web  is  turned  back  and  hemmed.  Texture, 
moderately  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length, 
six  to  ten  feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Now  and  then  are  seen  comparatively  scarce  rugs,  such  as  the 
Teheran,  Gulistan,  Kara-Geuz,  Bibikabad,  Afshar,  and  Gozene, 
that  were  woven  within  the  Iranian  boundaries.  Some  of  them 
are  no  longer  produced,  and  others  are  woven  in  such  small  numbers 
that  but  few  are  exported. 

The  Teherans  were  formerly  made  in  the  present  capital  of  Persia. 
The  typical  pattern  consists  of  the  Herati  design  or  some  floral 


TJ&SZ&W 


mmmmWM 


Plate  36.  Kir-Shehr  Prayer  Rug 


\ 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


155 


form  occupying  the  central  field,  which  is  two  or  three  times  as  long 
as  wide.  The  weave  resembles  that  of  Irans,  since  the  knot  is 
Ghiordes,  each  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  that  it  encircles  is  equally 
prominent  at  the  back,  and  both  warp  and  weft  are  cotton.  The 
borders  are  wide,  and  the  sides  are  finished  with  a two-cord  selvage. 

Gulistan  is  the  Persian  name  for  a flower  garden,  and  the  rugs 
known  by  that  name  were  once  made  in  a district  not  far  from 
Kashan,  where  rose  bushes  bloomed  profusely.  The  fields  may  be 
covered  with  conventionalised  floral  and  leaf  patterns,  or  again  they 
may  contain  roses  naturalistically  drawn  with  extended  petals,  as 
if  viewed  from  above.  The  most  striking  characteristic  is  the  opu- 
lence of  colour,  such  as  red,  blue,  and  yellow  softened  by  shades 
of  brown  and  green.  Even  the  weft  and  the  webs  of  the  ends  are 
red,  blue,  or  brown.  The  sides  have  a two-cord  selvage,  warp  and 
weft  are  usually  of  cotton,  and  one  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot  is 
depressed  at  the  back.  These  rugs,  which  formerly  came  in  large 
sizes,  are  no  longer  made. 

Only  a short  distance  to  the  northeast  of  Hamadan  is  the  district 
of  Kara-Geuz,  which  is  occupied  by  a large  tribe,  who  in  the  past 
have  furnished  some  of  the  best  of  Persian  cavalry.  The  people 
are  industrious,  and  not  only  cultivate  the  land  but  engage  in 
weaving.  Some  of  their  rugs  closely  resemble  the  Kurdish  pieces, 
and  others  correspond  with  the  Irans.  In  the  technique  of  weave 
they  often  follow  the  Hamadans.  On  the  outskirts  of  this  district 
is  the  town  of  Bibikabad,  where,  also,  rugs  are  woven  for  market. 

For  a number  of  generations  the  country  adjoining  Lake  Uru- 
miah  on  the  west  and  stretching  into  the  Turkish  domain  has  been 
partly  occupied  by  a powerful  race  of  brave  and  active  people 
who  are  known  as  Afshars.  They  are  regarded  as  a branch  of  the 
Yuruks  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  rugs  of  both  tribes  have  many  points 
of  similarity.  The  wool  of  the  nap  is  generally  the  coarse  product 
of  the  mountain  sheep.  The  patterns  incorporate  some  of  the  floral 
features  of  Persian  rugs,  though  they  display  many  Caucasian  char- 
acteristics. These  Afshars  bear  a close  resemblance  to  the  Kazaks, 
from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  by  observing  a fold  as  they 
are  bent  backwards,  which  will  show  the  fibres  of  the  yarn  of  a knot 
standing  out  at  front  as  a unit,  while  in  Kazaks  they  have  a greater 
tendency  to  blend.  Also  at  the  back,  each  half  of  a knot  is  no  longer 
than  wide,  nor  is  it  drawn  closely  against  the  warp,  while  in  Kazaks 
each  half  of  a knot  is  often  double  its  width  and  is  drawn  closer. 


156 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


In  the  country  about  Gozene,  in  the  watershed  of  the  Euphrates 
river,  are  made  a few  rugs  for  local  use,  though  they  occasionally 
reach  Western  markets.  The  pattern,  which  is  very  simple,  usually 
consists  of  some  small  diaper  figure  of  brown  or  grey  colour,  or  of 
dull  tones  of  maroon.  Many  of  this  class  have  a double  foundation 
of  warp;  and  frequently,  at  the  back,  the  knots  do  not  form  regular 
lines  parallel  with  the  length,  as  is  the  case  with  other  rugs.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  any  thread  of  warp  may  be  encircled  by  both 
the  left  half  of  some  knots  and  the  right  half  of  others.  Occasion- 
ally, also,  a knot  is  tied  about  four  threads  of  warp.  In  other  rugs 
of  this  class  which  have  a single  foundation  of  warp  the  weave 
resembles  that  of  Mosuls. 

BORDER  STRIPES 

The  most  noticeable  feature  of  Persian  border  stripes  is  their 
floral  character,  which  is  very  frequently  represented  by  a vine 
winding  from  side  to  side  with  pendent  flowers  marking  each  flexure. 
Some  of  these  vines  have  been  evolved  from  arabesques,  and  others 
from  naturalistic  tendrils,  but  all  are  graceful.  In  a few  pieces  the 
stripes  contain  rows  of  detached  flowers,  rosettes,  or  pears,  expressed 
in  rich  yet  unobtrusive  colours,  that  are  always  in  perfect  harmony 
with  those  of  the  field.  Rarely  is  the  pattern  geometric.  Accordingly, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Indian  and  some  of  the  Chinese,  they  are 
the  most  elegant,  pleasing,  and  artistic  of  all  border  stripes.  More- 
over, some  of  them  follow  almost  the  same  patterns  that  were  in 
use  centuries  ago. 

Primary  Stripes. — In  Plate  E,  Fig.  1 (opp.  Pagel56),  is  represented 
a typical  Herat  stripe  derived  from  some  of  the  XV  and  XVI  Century 
carpets.  It  shows  close  relationship  to  the  pattern  of  conventional 
rosette  and  pair  of  attendant  leaves  so  frequently  seen  on  the  fields 
of  such  rugs  as  the  Feraghans  and  Sehnas.  In  this  stripe  the  angu- 
lar and  serrated  leaves  are  extended  to  form  a vine. 

One  of  the  best  known  Khorassan  stripes,  shown  in  Plate  E, 
Fig.  2,  bears  a resemblance  to  the  Herat  stripe;  and  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  they  had  a common  origin,  since  they  were  designed  in  adjoin- 
ing and  freely  communicating  districts.  The  enlargements  of  the 
vine  at  the  centre  of  each  flexure  are  doubtless  leaves,  but  they 
occasionally  resemble  the  heads  of  birds. 


Plate  E.  Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Persian  Rugs 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


157 


The  so-called  turtle  pattern,  Plate  E,  Fig.  3,  lias  probably  been 
derived  from  the  interlacing  arabesques  that  appeared  in  rugs  at 
least  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  XV  Century,  as  is  indicated 
on  Page  79.  The  rosette  and  attendant  leaves  between  adjacent 
“turtles”  suggest  the  Herati  pattern.  This  stripe  is  found  princi- 
pally in  Feraghans,  Irans,  Selinas,  and  Muskabads.  One  that  is 
similar,  but  more  mechanically  drawn  and  with  wider  spreading 
arms,  is  typical  of  Gorevans  and  Serapis. 

A stripe  found  in  Joshaghans,  representing  a row  of  floral  bushes, 
is  shown  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  4.  It  is  also  seen  in  some  of  the  old  rugs  of 
Northwestern  Persia.  Another  Joshaghan  stripe,  which  also  suggests 
the  Herati  pattern,  is  represented  in  Fig.  5. 

A single  row  of  pears  (Plate  E,  Fig.  6)  is  a characteristic  Lar- 
istan  stripe. 

The  dainty  pattern  of  Plate  E,  Fig.  7,  in  which  the  vine  has  been 
abandoned  and  serrated  leaves  nearly  surround  a floral  device, 
shows  a not  unusual  Herez  stripe. 

As  a rule  the  drawing  of  Persian-Kurdish  stripes  is  never  crowded, 
and  represents  a simple  vine  with  bright  pendent  flowers.  A 
stripe  commonly  seen  in  this  class  is  represented  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  8. 
It  is  also  seen  in  the  Bijars. 

On  account  of  the  geographic  position  of  the  Karadagh  district, 
which  is  separated  only  by  the  Aras  river  from  Caucasia,  its  stripes 
show  a combination  of  floral  and  geometric  design  not  usual  in  other 
Persian  pieces.  Plate  E,  Fig.  9,  represents  one  of  these  stripes  with 
a rosette,  and  the  serrated  leaf  so  common  among  the  Shirvans. 
Plate  E,  Fig.  10,  represents  another  stripe  of  the  same  class  with 
eight-petalled  star-shaped  flowers  pendent  from  an  angular  vine. 

A beautiful  stripe,  representing  a vine  and  pendant  flower,  which 
is  frequently  seen  in  some  of  the  Persian-Ivurdish  rugs,  is  shown  in 
Plate  E,  Fig.  11. 

In  Plate  E,  Fig.  12,  is  illustrated  a very  dainty  pattern  of  vine  and 
roses  that  now  and  then  is  seen  in  old  Feraghans;  and  in  Fig.  13 
are  also  represented  vine  and  roses  as  they  occasionally  appear  in 
old  rugs  of  Northwestern  Persia. 

The  very  mechanically  drawn  double  vine  shown  in  Plate  E, 
Fig.  14,  is  sometimes  seen  in  stripes  of  Hamadans.  In  fact,  sim- 
plicity of  border  is  a characteristic  of  this  class. 

Mosul  and  Kurdish  stripes  show  a similarity,  but  the  former  are 
often  more  mechanically  drawn  than  the  latter.  In  Plate  E,  Fig.  15, 


158 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


is  a stripe  from  an  old  and  beautiful  Mosul  with  conventionalised 
vine  and  King  Solomon’s  eight-pointed  star. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  typical  of  any  class  of  Persian  stripes  is 
the  well-known  Sarabend  pattern  of  formal  vine  with  pendent  pear 
on  white  ground.  It  is  very  rarely  that  a rug  of  this  class  is  without 
this  stripe  (Plate  E,  Fig.  16).  Its  presence  at  once  indicates  that  the 
piece  is  either  a Sarabend  or  an  Iran  copy. 

In  Plate  E,  Fig.  17,  is  the  well-known  pear  pattern  of  a Meshed 
stripe.  The  graceful  form,  resembling  in  a measure  the  Indian 
drawing,  is  peculiar  to  these  stripes. 

The  Kirman  stripe  (Plate  E,  Fig.  18)  invariably  contains  red 
roses  naturalistically  drawn,  surrounded  by  a profusion  of  leaves  and 
stems.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Persian  border  patterns. 

Somewhat  similar,  but  far  more  formal,  is  the  Kermanshah 
stripe,  one  of  which  appears  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  19,  with  mechanically 
drawn  flowers,  leaves,  and  vines. 

The  formal  pattern  (Plate  E,  Fig.  20)  of  octagons  surrounded 
by  latch-hooks  is  now  and  then  found  in  borders  of  Shiraz  rugs, 
and  indicates  how  great  a concession  their  weavers  at  times  make 
to  nomadic  influences. 

The  main  stripe  of  Selinas  is  always  narrow  and  contains  some 
floral  form,  though  frequently  much  conventionalised.  One  of 
these  stripes  is  shown  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  21. 

Very  few  Persian  rugs  have  such  wealth  of  floral  ornamentation 
in  the  borders  as  the  Sarouks  and  Kashans.  A stripe  typical  of 
the  former  is  represented  in  Plate  E,  Fig.  22. 

Secondary  and  Tertiary  Stripes.  — The  ornamentation  of  a large 
proportion  of  secondary  stripes  of  Persian  rugs  consists  of  running 
vines,  which  fall  within  two  divisions,  according  to  the  absence  or 
presence  of  pendants. 

Plate  F,  Fig.  1 (opp.  Page  158),  taken  from  an  inner  stripe  of  a 
Kermanshah,  shows  one  of  the  simplest  vines  with  budding  tendrils 
at  each  flexure. 

In  Plate  F,  Fig.  2,  is  a simple  stripe  seen  in  such  rugs  as  Gore- 
vans.  Similar  stripes  are  very  common.  As  there  is  no  pendant, 
the  character  of  the  vine  depends  upon  the  form  it  assumes  in  al- 
ternating flexures,  one  of  which  in  this  instance  is  an  eight-petalled 
star. 

In  many  of  the  Karadaghs  is  seen  the  Caucasian  stripe  (Plate  F, 


2. 


/T\1ST\ 


8 


r4 


CQ/5X)a/©Ca> 


0^D&j^D(^P D( 

16 


Plate  F.  Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Persian  Rugs 


PERSIAN  RUGS 


159 


Fig.  3)  consisting  of  an  angular  vine,  from  each  flexure  of  which  spring 
small  designs  like  three-leaf  clover. 

Another  type  peculiar  to  some  rugs  of  Northwestern  Persia,  as 
the  Bijars  and  even  Selinas,  is  shown  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  4.  Here  one 
flexure  is  a serrated  leaf,  and  the  other  is  a small  rosette  with  short 
curving  tendrils. 

A simple  vine  of  somewhat  similar  order  appears  in  Plate  F, 
Fig.  5.  At  each  flexure  is  a flower  of  four  petals,  and  from  alternat- 
ing flexures  spring  tendrils  of  colour  different  from  that  of  the  vine. 
Stripes  of  similar  drawing  appeared  in  Persian  carpets  as  early  as 
1350  a.d.  A further  stage  in  the  development  of  the  same  pattern 
is  illustrated  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  6. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  a vine  with  pendant  is  shown  in  Plate 
F,  Fig.  7.  It  appears  in  Asia  Minor  carpets  woven  during  the  XIII 
Century,  and  also  in  some  of  the  earliest  Iranian  carpets.  Now  and 
then  it  is  seen  in  modern  Persian  rugs. 

A very  common  form  of  a vine  with  pendant  is  shown  in  Plate 
F,  Fig.  8.  This  pattern  is  seen  in  a large  number  of  Persian  rugs, 
such  as  Mosuls,  Bijars,  Kurdistans,  and  Hamadans.  Each  flexure 
of  the  vine  is  enlarged  to  almost  the  form  of  a leaf,  and  between  them 
is  a branching  pendant. 

In  another  stripe  (Plate  F,  Fig.  9),  taken  from  a Feraglian,  there 
is  no  particular  enlargement  to  the  vine,  and  the  alternating  pendants 
are  buds  and  flowers  of  four  petals. 

A more  geometric  form  that  appears  in  such  rugs  as  Muskabads 
is  shown  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  10.  In  this  the  vine  represents  serrated 
leaves,  and  suggests  one  of  the  Shirvan  patterns. 

A very  similar  stripe  (Plate  F,  Fig.  11),  taken  from  a Selina, 
should  be  compared  with  those  of  Figs.  8 and  10,  as  it  serves  to 
illustrate  the  evolution  of  vine  patterns.  In  fact,  if  a very  large 
number  of  stripes  were  arranged  in  proper  order,  they  would  show 
almost  imperceptible  gradations  from  one  type  to  another. 

One  of  the  simplest  vines  with  pendant,  adopted  by  the  Kurdish 
tribes,  is  shown  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  12;  and  in  Fig.  13  is  another  vine 
with  pendent  pear  alternating  with  a rosette. 

Not  all  the  patterns,  however,  are  vines.  In  Plate  F,  Figs.  14 
and  15,  for  instance,  is  represented  the  same  secondary  stripe  as 
it  appears  at  the  sides  and  the  ends  of  some  moderately  old  Persian 
rugs.  The  former  pattern  bears  a resemblance  to  the  one  in  Fig.  5, 
and  each  illustrates  a series  of  connecting  links. 


160 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


A graceful  pattern  that  is  seen  in  Bijars,  Hamadans,  and  other 
rugs  of  Northwestern  Persia  is  represented  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  16. 
It  was  probably  derived  from  an  old  form  of  leaf  and  tendril. 

The  reciprocal  trefoil  (Plate  F,  Fig.  17)  which  is  constantly  used 
in  a tertiary  stripe,  is  probably  a degenerate  form  of  an  ornate  floral 
design.  It  is  more  widely  used  for  a border  stripe  than  any  other 
pattern,  as  it  is  found  not  only  in  such  Persian  rugs  as  Sarabends, 
Bij  ars,  Sarouks,  and  Kashans,  but  in  many  of  the  Indian  and  Belu- 
chistan  rugs,  and  in  almost  all  of  the  Caucasian  group.  It  was  com- 
monly used  in  Persian  rugs  as  early  as  the  year  1500. 

In  many  of  the  rugs  of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor  is  seen  as  a tertiary 
stripe  the  simple  ribbon  pattern  (Plate  F,  Fig.  18).  Its  origin  is 
lost  in  the  dim  past,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  once  it  had  a 
symbolic  meaning. 

A very  interesting  tertiary  stripe,  because  of  its  well-authenti- 
cated age,  contains  the  “Y”  pattern  shown  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  19. 
It  is  found  in  some  Persian  carpets  that  were  woven  as  early  as 
1550. 

One  of  the  simplest  guard  stripes,  shown  in  Plate  F,  Fig.  20, 
is  frequently  found  in  modern  Persian  rugs,  as  well  as  in  Iranian 
carpets  woven  six  centuries  ago. 


f 


\‘h«** 


Colour  Plate  VI.  Persian  Garden  Carpet 

This  carpet  and  the  one  at  the  Naesby  House,  Sweden,  W'hich  it  resembles 
in  pattern  but  not  in  colouring,  are,  so  far  as  known,  the  only  complete  car- 
pets of  this  type.  The  Naesby  carpet  has  been  assigned  to  the  middle  of 
the  XMII  Century;  this  is  undoubtedly  much  older. 


A 16TII  CENTURY  PERSIAN  ROYAL  "GARDEN  ” CARPET. 
(Reputed  to  have  been  made  for  Shfth  'Abbas  for  Sefavi  Palace.'  Date  15S7-162S. 
31  ft.  Oin.  x 12ft.  3 in. 

[Statement  of  the  owner] 

IN  THE  POSSESSION  OF  VINCENT  ROBINSON  & CO.,  LTD. 


The  pattern  represents  a Persian  garden  divided  into  four  sections  by  two 
intersecting  streams,  which  are  bordered  by  rows  of  cypress  trees,  alternating 
with  bushes  on  which  are  birds.  These  sections  are  similarly  divided  by 
smaller  streams,  that  meet  at  the  four  pavillions  of  each  side,  into  plots  con- 
taining trees  and  flowering  bushes.  Four  peacocks  rest  above  the  central  basin. 
The  colours  are  harmonious,  and  show  the  mellowing  influence  of  time. 


TECHNICALITIES  IN  THE  WEAVE  OF  PERSIAN  RUGS 


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TECHNICALITIES  IN  THE  WEAVE  OF  PERSIAN  RUGS 


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[ ] indicates  the  less  frequent  condition. 


CHAPTER  X 

ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


LL  rugs  that  are  woven  in  the  Turkish  prov- 
inces of  Asia  are  frequently  grouped  to- 
gether and  called  “Turkish”  rugs;  but  a more 
natural  classification  is  to  distinguish  between 
those  made  to  the  east  and  those  made  to 
the  west  of  a line  drawn  from  the  Gulf  of 
Iskenderoon  to  Trebizond,  deflecting  slightly 
in  its  course  so  as  to  follow  the  ridges  that 
of  the  western  forks  of  the  Euphrates  river 
With  the  exception  of  the  very  few 


divide  the  watershed 
from  the  plateau  of  Anatolia, 
pieces  that  come  from  Syria  or  other  southerly  districts,  those  woven 
in  the  Turkish  provinces  east  of  this  line  show  such  a relationship 
to  those  of  Persia  that  they  are  more  properly  classed  with  them; 
while  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  exception  of  the  rugs  of  the  wander- 
ing Yuruks,  those  woven  to  the  west  of  this  line  and  in  the  neighbour- 
ing islands  of  the  Mediterranean  conform  so  closely  to  a common 
type  that  they  fall  naturally  into  a separate  group.  It  is  better, 
therefore,  to  treat  them  separately  and  to  call  them  the  Asia  Minor 
Rugs. 

Though  a certain  glamour  attaches  to  all  that  comes  from  Persia, 
the  Indes,  or  Far  Cathay,  in  no  part  of  the  Orient  are  rugs  woven 
on  more  classic  ground  than  are  the  Asia  Minor  pieces.  They  are 
still  made  in  the  shadow  of  the  walls  where  Croesus  lived  and  among 
villages  where  Homer  trod.  Their  yarn  is  spun  with  crude  distaff 
by  the  shepherd  who  still  drives  his  flock  along  the  same  road  where 
Artaxerxes  marched,  across  the  bridges  that  Roman  legions  built, 
and  over  the  green  slopes  of  Mt.  Ida.  In  fact  the  names  of  some  of 
them  call  to  mind  pictures  of  the  Crusades,  the  journey  of  Paul, 
the  march  of  Alexander’s  conquering  army,  and  of  cities  founded 
before  the  beginning  of  history. 

When  analysing  the  rugs  of  Asia  Minor,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a 
distinction  that  has  been  previously  noticed  in  the  case  of  Persian 


164 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


rugs,  though  with  them  it  is  less  important.  From  the  time  when 
there  arose  a large  demand  in  the  markets  of  Europe  and  America 
for  the  rugs  of  the  East  the  natural  supply  decreased,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  the  price  of  those  that  remained  increased.  To  meet 
this  deficiency,  and  because  of  the  higher  prices,  there  was  established 
a system  by  which  large  numbers  of  women  and  children  were  con- 
stantly employed;  although  many  worked  in  their  own  homes,  using 
such  material  as  was  furnished  by  their  employers  and  receiving 
fixed  daily  wages.  In  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  Asia  Minor, 
which  are  connected  by  railroads  with  seaports,  are  a number  of  com- 
munities where  this  system  is  in  vogue.  One  of  these  is  at  Demirdji 
in  the  province  of  Smyrna,  where  there  are  a small  number  of  looms; 
others  are  in  the  districts  of  Ghiordes  and  Kulah,  which  together 
have  about  one  thousand  looms;  and  Oushak,  the  principal  rug- 
weaving centre  of  Asia  Minor,  has  as  many  more.*  Almost  all 
rugs  produced  at  such  places  are  now  shipped  to  Smyrna,  which 
itself  has  but  very  few  looms,  or  to  Constantinople,  whence  they  are 
reshipped  to  Western  markets.  These  products  lack  much  of  the 
oldtime  artistic  spirit  and  individuality  of  character,  on  account 
of  the  dependence  of  the  weavers  on  their  employers,  who  demand 
the  largest  output  consistent  with  fair  quality.  Furthermore,  the 
weavers  are  frequently  required  to  reproduce  Western  patterns. 
The  result  is  that  most  of  these  rugs  possess  little  of  the  firmness  of 
texture,  the  harmonious  relations  of  designs,  and  the  excellent  colour 
of  old  fabrics.  Since,  then,  they  represent  in  a measure  European 
influences,  and  are  subject  to  further  changes  to  meet  the  demands  of 
a fluctuating  foreign  taste,  it  would  be  of  little  use  to  describe  them, 
especially  as  all  their  original  characteristics  exist  in  the  old  pieces. 

The  striking  features  of  Asia  Minor  rugs  woven  over  fifty  years 
ago  are  the  colour  schemes,  main  patterns,  and  the  separate  designs, 
which  may  be  either  independent  of  the  pattern  or  constitute  part 
of  it.  The  colour  effect  of  Asia  Minor  rugs  is  as  a rule  brighter  than 
that  of  the  Central  Asian,  Indian,  or  Persian  groups;  for  the  reds, 
blues,  and  yellows  are  less  subdued.  Some  of  their  tones  never  appear 
in  Chinese  rugs,  and  on  the  whole  they  most  closely  resemble  those 
of  the  Caucasian  pieces;  yet  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  such  colours 
as  mauve,  lavender,  and  canary  yellow,  that  rarely  appear  even 
among  these.  Moreover,  in  a few  of  them  masses  of  strongly  con- 

* It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  within  the  last  few  years  large  numbers  of  pieces 
bearing  resemblance  to  old  Oriental  rugs  have  been  woven  about  Constantinople. 


ASIA  MINOR 


I 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


165 


trasting  colours  are  placed  beside  one  another  without  the  customary 
shading  of  Persian  rugs  or  the  artificial  device  of  Caucasian  latch- 
hooks  to  soften  the  effect  of  harsh  combinations. 

The  difference,  nevertheless,  between  the  Asia  Minor  rugs  and 
those  of  other  groups  is  less  apparent  in  the  colour  schemes  than  in 
the  main  patterns,  for  in  the  Asia  Minor  rugs  is  evidence  of  an  in- 
dependent inspiration  and  development.  There  are  lacking  the  rigid 
octagonal  figures  of  the  Central  Asian  groups;  the  frets  and  floral 
sprays  distinctive  of  Chinese;  the  naturalistic  floral  treatment  of 
the  Indian;  the  delicate  tracings,  rhythm  of  movement,  and  wealth 
of  foliage  motives  that  characterise  the  Persian;  as  well  as  the 
severely  geometric  forms  and  conventionalised  motives  of  the  Cau- 
casian. Instead  of  gracefully  flowing  lines  we  find  strong  rectan- 
gular ones;  instead  of  flowers  realistically  balanced  on  interlacing, 
foliate  stalks,  they  are  arranged  separately  in  formal  rows.  But 
if  their  patterns  lack  the  fertility  of  invention  or  the  refinement 
of  Persian  and  Indian  pieces,  they  excel  them  in  the  strength  of 
their  clear  definition,  accentuated  by  massing  of  colour.  It  is,  how- 
ever, in  the  prayer  patterns,  which  appear  in  the  majority  of  Asia 
Minor  rugs,  that  the  weavers  attain  their  best  results;  for  in  such 
work  they  have  the  inspiration  of  a high  religious  as  well  as  artistic 
spirit.  In  these  patterns,  which  differ  from  those  of  any  other  group 
of  rugs,  is  often  manifest  singular  beauty  and  grace,  as  well  as 
delicate  sentiment  derived  from  worship  in  Moslem  chapels;  for 
in  many  is  represented  the  burning  lamp  that,  projected  against  a 
background  of  sacred  green,  hangs  from  the  column-supported  arch, 
above  which  is  spread  a spandrel  of  blue  typifying  the  vaulted 
heavens. 

Likewise  many  of  the  small  designs  that  are  found  in  other  groups 
of  rugs  are  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  this  one;  as,  for  instance,  ani- 
mals, birds,  fishes,  and  human  beings  are  never  employed,  on  account 
of  the  religious  prejudice  of  the  Sunnite  Mohammedans,  who  prevail 
in  the  country.  Nor,  with  very  few  exceptions,  is  the  Herati  design, 
so  characteristic  of  Persian  rugs,  nor  the  pear  design,  so  characteristic 
of  both  Persian  and  Indian  rugs,  ever  seen.  Furthermore,  the  re- 
ciprocal trefoil,  that  is  used  as  a motive  for  a small  border  stripe  in  all 
Caucasian  and  many  Persian  rugs,  is  very  rarely  found  in  Asia 
Minor  pieces  woven  during  the  last  two  centuries,  though  it  appears 
in  some  of  an  earlier  era.  But  in  its  place  are  the  water  motive  and 
ribbon,  which  are  less  frequently  employed  by  the  weavers  of  any 


166 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


other  country.  There  are  also  many  small  floral  motives  that  ap- 
pear only  in  Asia  Minor  rugs,  and  that  will  be  noticed  in  connection 
with  the  separate  classes. 

These  characteristics  of  colour,  pattern,  and  design  are  not  the 
result  of  a spontaneous  growth  unalloyed  by  foreign  influences; 
for  a natural  art  never  existed  in  Asia  Minor,  which  has  never 
enjoyed  a national  existence;  but  they  are  the  results  of  artistic 
movements  that  at  different  times  have  swept  over  that  country. 
Thus,  as  an  heirloom  of  dynasties  that  once  flourished  farther  east, 
are  the  Cufic  characters  that  appear  in  some  of  the  early  border  pat- 
terns; and  as  a relic  of  the  Mongol  and  Timurid  invasions  are  the 
dragon  and  other  designs  found  in  the  oldest  pieces.  In  Oushaks, 
as  well  as  others,  are  seen  the  evidences  of  Persian  treatment; 
while  the  drawing  and  colour  schemes  of  the  prayer  rugs  forcibly 
suggest  Saracenic,  Grecian,  and  Christian  ideas.  In  fact,  the  rugs 
of  Asia  Minor,  while  possessing  co-ordination  of  colour  and  design, 
are  in  a measure  composite.  They  never  reach  the  high  artistic 
development  of  Persian  rugs,  because  the  latter  were  produced  under 
the  fostering  care  of  great  kings  whose  royal  magnificence  could 
secure  from  years  of  patient  labour  suitable  furnishings  for  palaces 
and  mosques;  yet  they  are  none  the  less  interesting  subjects  for 
speculation  and  study. 

Bergamos.  — In  the  valley  of  the  Caicus  and  twenty  miles  from 
the  iEgean  Sea  is  the  city  of  Pergamus,  that  gives  its  name  to  the 
Bergamo  rugs.  It  is  of  unknown  antiquity,  and  may  have  stood  when 
Agamemnon  was  warring  with  the  house  of  Priam  before  the  walls 
of  that  other  city  of  the  same  name.  In  turn,  Persians,  Macedonians, 
Thracians,  Syrians,  and  Romans  had  taken  possession  of  it  before 
the  Apostle  Paul  founded  there  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia. 
Greek  sculptors  chiselled  its  monuments,  philosophers  taught  beneath 
the  shade  of  its  trees,  and  scholars  gathered  there  the  library  that 
rivalled  that  of  Alexandria.  Partly  encircled  by  mountains  and  en- 
closed by  the  wall  of  this  old  city,  that  was  wellnigh  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  Turkish  wars,  is  the  modern  city  of  some  fifteen  thousand 
inhabitants.  It  is  to-day  one  of  the  flourishing  cities  of  the  Levant, 
yet  only  in  the  surrounding  ruins  is  there  any  reminder  of  its  former 
greatness  and  splendour.  But  in  these  crumbling  relics  of  the  past 
and  in  the  excellence  of  its  woven  fabrics  of  more  recent  times  are 
traces  of  the  artistic  spirit  that  once  prevailed  there. 


Plate  37.  Anatolian  Prayer  Rug 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


167 


It  is  still  possible  to  obtain  many  good  specimens  of  Bergamos 
representing  the  craftsmanship  of  fifty  or  more  years  ago,  when 
aniline  dyes  and  European  patterns  were  unknown  east  of  the 
Hellespont.  Almost  without  exception  they  are  sterling  fabrics 
that  glory  in  a wealth  of  colour  accentuated  by  depth  of  pile  and 
sheen  of  soft  lustrous  wool.  An  observer  is  at  once  impressed  by 
the  tones  of  deep  blue  and  madder  red  that  a few  lines  or  patches  of 
ivory  white  bring  out  more  clearly,  and  forms  a favourable  estimate 
of  the  value  of  these  pieces  independently  of  the  drawing,  which 
seems  subservient  to  the  part  of  giving  spirit  and  quality  to  the  col- 
our scheme.  In  fact,  it  is  to  the  genius  of  the  dyer  who  applies  his 
knowledge  to  the  tinting  of  carefully  selected  wool,  and  to  the  pains 
of  the  weaver  in  constructing  the  foundation  of  warp  and  weft 
rather  than  to  his  skill  in  arranging  artistic  designs,  that  these  pieces 
command  as  high  a price  as  old  Kirmans  of  similar  age. 

In  two  particulars  Bergamos  differ  from  most  Asia  Minor  rugs: 
in  shape  they  are  nearly  square,  and  prayer  rugs  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule.  Nor  do  all  the  prayer  rugs  follow  the  same 
general  pattern,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  other  classes.  They  may 
have  low  tent-shaped  arches  like  those  of  Daghestans,  high  tri- 
angular arches  with  stepped  sides  and  a panel  above  the  spandrels 
as  in  the  Kir-Shehrs,  or  they  may  have  shapes  unlike  those  of  any 
other  class.  Moreover,  the  pieces  not  used  as  prayer  rugs  also  have 
great  diversity  of  pattern;  but  as  a rule  some  large  figure,  as  a me- 
dallion, occupies  the  centre  of  the  field.  Very  frequently  it  is  of 
hexagonal  shape,  with  the  sides  at  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  rug 
serrated  or  fringed  with  latch-hooks.  As  is  not  the  case  with  many 
of  the  Persian  rugs,  the  field  surrounding  the  medallion  is  almost 
always  covered  with  small  designs,  arranged  with  careful  precision 
so  as  to  show  a perfect  balance  with  reference  to  the  centre.  Eight- 
pointed  stars  and  other  geometric  figures  are  frequently  used,  but 
there  is  a leaning  to  floral  designs,  which,  however,  are  often  so 
conventionalised  as  almost  to  lose  their  identity.  Most  prominent 
of  these  is  the  Rhodian  lily  and  the  pomegranate;  but  the  lily  never 
shows  such  graceful  drawing  or  such  dainty  colouring  as  in  the 
Kulahs,  and  in  some  pieces  even  loses  all  resemblance  to  a floral 
form.  The  pomegranate,  which  suggests  the  Ladik,  is  more  fre- 
quently seen  in  the  main  border  stripe.  Undulating  vines  do  not 
find  favour  among  the  Bergamo  weavers,  and  small  isolated  geometric 
designs  are  largely  employed  in  the  narrow  border  stripes,  while 


168 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


larger,  more  complex  figures  often  replace  the  floral  in  the  main 
stripe. 

In  no  other  class  of  rugs  are  so  many  and  such  painstaking  de- 
vices to  avert  the  spell  of  the  evil  eye.  Should  an  unexpected  visitor 
surprise  the  weaver  while  at  work,  he  may  be  required  to  part  with 
a bit  of  his  frock,  which  is  then  attached  to  the  wide  web  of  the 
end;  should  a similar  occurrence  of  ill  omen  follow,  another  bit  of 
different  material  and  colour  may  be  sewn  upon  this ; and  as  a crown- 
ing talisman,  a button  may  be  affixed  to  both.  Small  cowrie  shells 
from  the  iEgean  shores  are  often  used  for  such  purposes;  and  now 
and  then  may  be  seen  a woollen  tassel  dangling  from  the  centre  or 
from  one  of  the  ends  of  the  rug. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  with 
minor  quantities  of  yellow,  white,  and  green.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  and  one  half  to  nine ; perpendicularly, 
seven  to  eleven.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the 
warp  is  concealed  at  back.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool  of 
fine  diameter,  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  from  two  to  six 
times  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool;  generally  of  me- 
dium length  but  frequently  long.  Border,  from  one  to  four  stripes; 
most  frequently  of  three.  Sides,  a weft  selvage  of  two,  three,  or  four 
cords,  coloured  red  or  blue,  with  occasionally  some  green  or  yellow. 
Both  ends,  a web,  that  is  sometimes  six  or  seven  inches  wide,  coloured 
red  and  crossed  by  broad  longitudinal  stripes,  which  are  generally 
blue,  but  may  be  black,  white,  brown,  or  yellow.  Some  device 
to  avert  the  evil  eye  is  frequently  attached  to  the  webs.  Beyond  the 
web  is  a tasselled  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  fine  grain.  Usual  length,  three  to  seven  feet.  Usual 
width,  three  quarters  to  nine  tenths  length. 

Ghiordes.  — Whether,  as  has  been  maintained,  the  town  of 
Ghiordes,  that  lies  a day’s  journey  to  the  east  of  Pergamus,  is  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Gordium  where  tradition  says  the  father  of 
Midas  dedicated  his  chariot  to  Jupiter,  and  Alexander  severed  the 
bark  which  bound  the  pole  to  the  yoke,  it  claims  attention  from  the 
fact  that  the  rugs  woven  there  one  and  two  centuries  ago  not  only 
excelled  similar  products  in  all  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  but  equalled 
the  best  fabrics  woven  in  Persia  during  the  same  period.  Indeed, 
a few  connoisseurs  would  rank  them  still  higher;  yet  with  reference 


Plate  38.  Mud.tar  Prayer  Rug 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


169 


to  technique  of  weave  and  delicacy  of  colour  and  drawing,  very  few 
should  be  classed  with  those  woven  in  the  previous  century  by  the 
proteges  of  Tamasp  and  Shah  Abbas. 

So  essentially  do  the  modern  rugs  of  the  Ghiordes  district  differ 
from  the  old  pieces  in  weave,  colour,  and  pattern,  and  so  great  is 
their  inferiority,  that  they  have  little  interest;  but  fortunately  it  is 
still  possible  to  purchase  pieces  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  of  age,  and  others  still  older  are  in  the  hands  of  col- 
lectors or  in  museums.  In  determining  their  age  the  colours  and 
drawing,  as  well  as  weave  and  pattern,  are  important  indices.  For 
instance,  the  reddish  tones  of  the  fields  of  pieces  less  than  a century 
old  have  a pinkish  or  even  magenta  tinge,  while  in  the  oldest  the  red 
is  of  rich,  deep  colour.  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  blues,  greens,  yellows, 
and  even  the  ivories  that  rarely  occupy  the  field,  a riper  and  richer 
colour  marks  the  greater  age.  Likewise  with  the  drawing,  greater 
painstaking  and  higher  artistic  skill  are  apparent  in  the  older  rugs; 
though  in  some  of  the  oldest  the  designs  are  less  ornate  than  in  those 
of  a subsequent  period.  This  is  also  true  of  the  patterns  as  a whole; 
since  the  best  types  are  found  in  rugs  that  are  probably  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  whereas 
in  the  extremely  old  pieces  there  is  an  approach  to  archaic  forms. 

The  difference  between  the  odjaliks  and  namazliks,  which  are 
the  kinds  most  frequently  seen,  is  most  noticeable.  The  colours, 
to  be  sure,  are  much  the  same,  though  as  a rule  lighter  and  duller 
tones  predominate  in  the  odjaliks.  Their  borders  show  a greater 
tendency  to  use  geometric  figures,  some  of  which  are  profusely  fringed 
with  latch-hooks  suggestive  of  Caucasian  influences.  They  also 
contain  archaic  designs  believed  to  be  associated  with  sun  worship, 
as  well  as  many  floral  forms  common  to  the  prayer  rugs.  It  is,  how- 
ever, in  the  fields  that  the  distinction  is  most  noticeable;  since  the 
large  masses  of  uniform  colour  that  make  the  namazliks  so  effective 
are  wanting,  and  instead  are  frequently  seen  hexagonal-shaped 
medallions  that  are  fringed  with  large  rounded  latch-hooks  and  con- 
tain a lozenge  or  other  geometric  design  in  the  centre.  At  both  ends 
of  the  fields  are  sometimes  narrow  panels  containing  quasi-floral 
forms,  and  stiff  conventions  occupy  the  intervening  corner  spaces. 

In  striking  contrast  to  these  odjaliks  are  the  old  Ghiordes  prayer 
rugs,  with  the  rich  tones  of  solid  colour  in  the  fields  and  the  delicate 
drawing  of  the  borders.  No  doubt  they  were  made  with  unusual 
care,  since  they  were  intended  for  religious  purposes.  The  pattern 


170 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


represents  an  entrance  into  a mosque;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
some  of  the  earliest  rugs  were  copied  directly  from  archways,  many 
of  which  still  exist  in  Mohammedan  countries.*  Near  the  base  of 
all  Ghirodes  arches,  at  each  side,  is  a shoulder,  which  in  old  pieces 
was  supported  by  a single  pilaster  or  a pair.  Sometimes  these  were 
ornamented  with  scroll  work  or  floral  forms,  but  finally  many  of 
them  degenerated  into  floral  devices  that  bore  slight  resemblance 
to  columns,  and  in  other  rugs  they  have  entirely  disappeared.  In 
some  very  old  pieces  the  shoulders  and  the  mihrab  were  rounded, 
but  as  a rule  the  shoulders  are  flattened  at  a very  obtuse  angle; 
and  the  mihrab  is  either  plain  or  has  stepped  sides  that  culminate 
in  a blunted  apex.  To  further  suggest  the  sacred  purposes  of  the  rug 
a lamp  is  often  suspended  from  the  niche,  though  floral  forms  may 
take  its  place,  and  not  infrequently  these  too  are  wanting.  Almost 
without  exception  some  reminder  of  the  tree  of  life,  such  as  the  small 
floral  sprig  or  the  Rhodian  lily,  is  projected  from  the  inner  side  of 
the  arch  and  from  all  sides  of  the  border  against  the  field.  In  the 
spandrel,  also,  is  almost  invariably  some  floral  or  leaf  form;  though 
these  may  be  very  much  conventionalised  or  even  supplanted  by 
geometric  figures.  Above  the  spandrel  is  a panel,  which  may  con- 
tain some  floral  form,  scroll  device,  or  verse  from  the  Koran;  and 
another  panel,  though  generally  with  different  design,  is  almost 
invariably  placed  beneath  the  field.  A scroll  resembling  a large 
S (Plate  O,  Fig.  9,  Page  291)  frequently  appears  in  these  panels.  Its 
resemblance  to  forms  found  in  Armenian  dragon  carpets  of  earlier 
centuries  is  very  noticeable. 

The  border  surrounding  the  field  is  as  characteristic  of  this  class 
as  is  the  prayer  arch.  There  are  invariably  a number  of  stripes, 
which  generally  consist  of  a wide  central  one,  two  secondary,  and  two 
or  more  small  guard  stripes.  The  drawing  is  distinctly  floral,  yet  is 
widely  different  from  the  Persian.  A design  (Plate  G,  Fig.  1 , opp.  Page 
192)  frequently  seen  in  the  central  stripe  represents  a large  palmette 
or  rosette  partly  surrounded  by  leaves,  suggestive  of  the  Herati 

* One  of  the  most  interesting  is  at  Sivas,  where  are  the  remains  of  a most 
beautiful  Seljuk  gateway,  with  architectural  lines  that  might  well  have  been  taken 
for  a weaver’s  model.  As  in  many  prayer  rugs,  the  engaged  columns  support  a 
high  arch  over  which  a panel  rests  above  a figured  spandrel.  The  outlines  of  each 
of  these  parts  suggest  most  forcibly  the  drawing  of  the  prayer  rug,  and  the  resem- 
blance is  carried  even  further;  for  corresponding  with  the  border  stripes  is  the 
chiselled  masonry  that  once  rested  above  the  panel  and  still  extends  to  the  foot 
of  the  entrance  at  each  side  of  the  arch. 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


171 


design,  and  connected  by  tendrils  with  more  delicate  flowers  or 
leaves.  But  the  more  usual  design  (Plate  G,  Fig.  3)  consists  of 
flowers  and  fruits  that  are  arranged  in  quadrangular  shape,  so  that 
the  alternate  units  face  in  different  directions  as  they  extend  around 
the  border.  Though  it  is  far  from  naturalistic,  its  delicate  lace-like 
drawing  with  clear  definition  and  its  tones  in  harmony  with  the  cen- 
tral field,  contribute  largely  to  the  beauty  of  the  rug.  The  secondary 
stripes  have  generally  repetitive  leaf  forms;  and  running  through 
the  guard  stripes  is  a simple  vine,  ribbon,  or  wave  design.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  the  typical  Gliiordes  border  is  replaced  by  one 
borrowed  from  the  near  district  of  Kulah,  and  instead  of  the  broad 
central  stripe  are  several  narrow  parallel  stripes  studded  by  per- 
pendicular rows  of  small  floral  figures  (Plate  G,  Fig.  12).  An  unusual 
feature  of  these  rugs  is  the  linen  nap  which  is  sometimes  used  in 
the  field  instead  of  wool,  for  the  reason  that  it  retains  its  colour  while 
wool  darkens  with  age;  and  another  is  the  silken  fringe  which  is 
often  seen  at  the  corners  of  fine  specimens.  The  nap  is  always  short, 
and  the  rugs  are  closely  woven. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  yellow, 
and  white.  Knot,  Gliiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to 
twelve;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  sixteen.  The  rows  of  knots  are 
pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed  and  the  weft  is  partly 
hidden  at  back.  Warp,  wool  or  cotton  and  in  a few  pieces  raw  silk. 
One  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  usually  slightly  depressed 
below  the  other  at  the  back.  Weft,  wool  or  cotton.  A thread  of 
weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool, 
and  occasionally  some  cotton,  clipped  very  short  so  as  to  be  harsh 
to  the  touch.  Border,  six  to  nine  stripes.  Sides,  a weft  selvage  of  two 
or  three  cords,  or  only  infrequently  an  added  selvage  of  silk.  Both 
ends,  a narrow  web  and  warp  fringe.  A few  pieces  have  an  added 
silk  fringe  at  the  corners.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  very 
fine  grain,  but  slightly  rough.  Usual  length,  five  to  seven  feet. 
Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  three  quarters  length. 

Kulahs.  — About  fifty  miles  from  Ghiordes,  in  a southeasterly 
direction,  is  the  Turkish  village  of  Kulah.  Both  places  are  surrounded 
by  the  same  general  character  of  hills  and  plains,  and  for  the  last 
several  centuries  the  people  of  each  have  been  subject  to  the  same 
influences  of  race  and  religion.  They  have  undoubtedly  visited, 
intermarried,  and  become  familiar  with  the  arts  and  crafts  of  one 


172 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


another.  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that  some  of  their  rugs  should 
have  similar  technique  of  weave,  and  that  a few  resemble  one 
another  in  general  pattern  and  small  designs.  Moreover,  such  a 
close  correspondence  exists  between  many  of  the  old  rugs  of  both 
districts,  that  even  the  most  experienced  are  sometimes  at  a loss  to 
distinguish  between  them.  In  fact  it  is  surprising  that  there  is  so 
marked  a distinction  between  most  of  them.  In  the  Kulahs  the 
border  designs  are  not  so  elaborately  drawn,  nor  are  the  prayer  arches 
so  high.  They  have  rarely  the  fringe  that  adorns  the  corners  of  some 
Ghiordes  rugs,  or  more  than  one  panel.  The  field  usually  contains 
floral  figures,  arranged  in  formal  order;  the  spandrel  is  almost  always 
extended  in  two  narrow  stripes,  one  at  each  side  of  the  field;  and 
the  colours  are  always  subdued.  These  and  other  characteristics 
of  each  class  make  it  possible  to  distinguish  between  most  of  them. 

As  is  the  case  with  Ghiordes  rugs,  sedjadehs  are  almost  unknown; 
but  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  odjaliks.  These  resemble  prayer  rugs 
in  the  following  respects:  the  borders  are  almost  identical;  the  cen- 
tral fields  contain  the  same  floral  figures  resting  on  a similarly  coloured 
ground;  both  ends  of  the  hexagonal -shaped  field  resemble  a mihrab; 
and  the  space  between  the  field  and  border  is  covered  with  designs 
peculiar  to  the  spandrels  of  the  prayer  rugs. 

On  account  of  their  artistic  drawing  and  soft  colours  the  prayer 
rugs  are  favourite  pieces  with  all  collectors.  It  is  true  that  the  arch 
is  flatter  than  that  of  any  other  rug  of  this  group,  and  is  defined  either 
by  plain  sloping  lines,  or  more  frequently  by  stepped  edges,  so  that 
it  lacks  the  classic  beauty  of  the  Ghiordes  type;  but  on  the  other 
hand  the  Rhodian  lily  and  other  floral  forms  characteristic  of  these 
pieces  are  delineated  with  a realism  and  graceful  delicacy  that  are 
unequalled  in  any  other  Asia  Minor  rugs.  Arranged  on  slender 
sprays  along  each  side  of  the  field,  hanging  as  long  clusters  from  the 
niche  in  place  of  a lamp,  or  placed  on  the  panel  in  formal  rows,  they 
accentuate  with  their  bright  tones  the  subdued  richness  of  the  ground 
colours.  Sometimes,  however,  these  simple  field  designs  are  re- 
placed by  more  formal  drawings  that  represent  a plat  of  land  with 
a tomb  shaded  by  a tall  cypress  and  other  trees  with  many  leafy 
branches.  Rugs  with  these  designs  are  not  uncommon  in  Germany, 
whither  large  quantities  of  Asia  Minor  prayer  rugs  were  shipped 
many  years  ago,  and  where  they  are  known  as  “Friedhofteppiche,  ” 
or  “Grave  Rugs.” 

The  most  pleasing  features  are  in  the  fields,  but  the  most  distin- 


Plate  39.  Daghestan  Prayer  Rug 


I 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


173 


guishing  features  are  in  the  borders,  which  are  invariably  of  several 
stripes.  Instead  of  the  large  central  stripe  with  floral  and  repetitive 
designs  common  to  most  rugs  is  a series  of  parallel  bands,  from  five 
to  ten  in  number  and  about  an  inch  in  width,  that  contain  rows  of 
minute  floral  forms.  These  narrow  bands  are  a distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Kulahs,  though  they  have  occasionally  been  copied  by 
the  Ghiordes  weavers.  Nevertheless,  they  are  sometimes  replaced 
by  the  broad  stripe  containing  rows  of  geometric-shaped  designs,  as  in 
Plate  G,  Fig.  13  (opp.  Page  192),  which  also  are  peculiar  to  these  rugs. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  these  designs  have  doubtless  been  derived 
from  leaf  forms  by  successive  degradation,  as  will  be  seen  by  com- 
paring Figs.  13a,  13b,  13c,  and  13d  of  Plate  O (Page  291).  There  is 
still  another  border  design  that  is  so  constantly  found  in  the  second- 
ary stripe  of  these  pieces  and  so  rarely  in  any  others  that  it  might  well 
be  designated  the  “Kulah  stripe”  (Plate  H,  Fig.  10,  opp.  Page  194). 
The  design  consists  of  a repetitive  figure  suggestive  of  some  Chinese 
device,  but  is  in  reality  a degraded  form  of  a vine,  as  will  be  seen 
by  observing  some  of  the  very  old  border  stripes.  Between  the 
inner  secondary  stripe  and  the  field  is  usually  a narrow  stripe  con- 
taining a continuous  ribbon  design,  or  a simple  vine-like  form,  as  in 
Plate  F,  Fig.  18  (opp.  Page  158).  Often  a part  of  each  succeeding 
undulation  of  the  vine  has  been  omitted  and  the  remaining  parts 
have  been  compressed,  so  as  to  leave  small  detached  figures  like  a 
row  of  “f’s,”  as  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  2.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  both 
vine  and  detached  figures  in  the  same  rug. 

Diversity  prevails  in  the  colours  of  field,  spandrel,  panel,  and 
borders.  In  the  field  is  generally  a mellowed  red,  or  a yellow  tint 
that  is  described  both  as  golden  brown  and  apricot;  blue  also  is 
occasionally  seen,  and  white  is  very  rare.  But  whatever  the  colour 
of  the  field,  that  of  the  spandrel  is  generally  a light  blue,  indicative 
of  the  sky,  and  the  overlying  panel  is  frequently  a dark  blue.  Green 
and  brown  often  appear  in  the  border,  as  well  as  a canary  yellow 
peculiar  to  Asia  Minor  rugs.  Moreover,  a few  of  these  pieces  have 
a single  small  area  of  red  or  blue,  that  was  doubtless  inserted  to 
avert  the  evil  eye,  since  it  shows  no  more  relation  to  the  surrounding 
colours  than  spilt  ink  might  have;  yet  in  spite  of  these  contrasts 
and  the  fact  that  the  nap  lacks  the  lustre  peculiar  to  many  other 
classes,  some  of  them  are  as  beautiful  as  Ghiordes. 

Between  these  old  fabrics  and  the  modern,  which  factory-like 
are  produced  in  large  quantities  to  meet  the  demands  of  a Western 


174 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


market  and  taste,  is  the  most  noticeable  difference,  for  the  latter 
are  inferior  to  the  former  in  patterns,  weave,  and  dyes.  Further- 
more, with  the  wool  of  many  is  mixed  mohair,  so  that  rapid  deteri- 
oration follows  slight  usage. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  brownish  yellow, 
and  blue,  with  minor  quantities  of  green,  dark  brown,  and  white. 
Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  ten ; perpendicu- 
larly, seven  to  twelve.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down. 
Warp,  wool;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  notice- 
ably depressed  at  the  back.  Weft,  in  most  rugs,  of  wool  of  medium 
diameter,  sometimes  dyed  yellow.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  be- 
tween every  two  rows  of  knots.  In  other  rugs,  even  very  old,  the  weft 
consists  of  a coarse  thread  of  jute  crossing  once  between  two  rows 
of  knots  and  alternating  with  a small  thread  of  jute  and  another  of 
wool  crossing  side  by  side  once  between  the  next  two  rows  of  knots. 
Pile,  wool,  of  short  or  medium  length.  Border,  six  to  nine  stripes. 
Sides,  a coloured  mixed  selvage  of  two,  three,  or  four  cords.  Both 
ends,  a coloured  web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  loose.  Weave  at 
back  is  of  moderately  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  seven  feet. 
Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Oushaks.  — Fifty  miles  eastward  from  Kulah  is  the  city  of 
Oushak,  famous  during  the  XV  and  XVI  Centuries  for  the  carpets 
exported  thence  to  Europe  to  adorn  the  halls  of  cathedrals  and 
thrones  of  monarchs.  But  with  the  subsequent  decadence  in  Asiatic 
art  its  glory  ebbed,  so  that  half  a century  ago  it  was  but  a small  mud- 
housed  city  known  for  the  excellence  of  its  dyes  and  the  wool  which 
was  taken  there  from  the  interior  to  be  washed,  spun,  and  then  sold 
to  the  weavers  of  the  surrounding  country.  Since  then,  however, 
its  population  has  steadily  grown,  and  the  weaving  industry  has 
thrived,  until  now  it  is  one  of  the  most  populous  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
with  looms  more  numerous  than  those  of  any  other  city.  The  weav- 
ing is  done  entirely  by  women  and  girls,  most  of  whom  are  Moham- 
medans. Though  they  live  principally  in  private  houses,  they  are 
under  the  direction  of  large  firms,  who  furnish  the  wool  as  well  as 
the  patterns,  which  are  in  accordance  with  European  and  American 
demands. 

Important  distinctions  exist  between  the  different  grades  of  these 
rugs.  Some  are  known  as  “Turkish  Kirmans,”  in  which  Persian  de- 
signs are  frequently  introduced,  others  are  of  still  finer  workman- 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


175 


ship,  but  the  oldest  and  coarsest  pieces  were  formerly  known  as 
“ Yapraks.”  These  are  distinguishable  by  their  strong  colours  of  red, 
green,  and  blue,  of  which  only  two  as  a rule  are  seen  in  a single  rug, 
and  are  massed  to  produce  striking  effects.  Their  foundation  of 
warp  and  weft,  which  are  dyed  in  the  same  colours,  is  loosely  woven 
and  often  of  an  inferior  grade  of  wool.  Many  of  them  are  too  large 
and  heavy  for  domestic  use,  but  are  well  adapted  for  salons  and  pub- 
lic halls. 

With  such  slight  variations  in  pattern  and  none  in  colour,  Oushaks 
would  be  of  little  interest  were  it  not  that  their  prototypes  were 
striking  pieces  woven  by  artisans  whom  Sultan  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent brought  from  the  northwestern  part  of  Persia,  when  he 
conquered  it  in  the  XVI  Century.  Some  of  them  appear  in  the 
paintings  of  old  masters,  and  when  contrasted  with  the  modern  fabrics 
indicate  how  great  is  the  decline  in  the  craftsmanship  of  the  weavers. 
Of  the  beautiful  well-balanced  designs  once  represented  in  the  fields, 
only  large  stars  and  diamonds,  defined  by  less  pleasing  lines  and 
placed  with  less  regularity,  remain.  All  of  the  graceful  arabesques 
and  dainty  floral  motives  that  appeared  as  sub-patterns  are  omitted. 
As  works  of  art,  the  modern  products  are  little  esteemed;  but  their 
durability,  depth  of  pile,  and  wealth  of  colour  make  them  excellent 
objects  of  utility. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  green. 
Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  four  to  eight;  perpen- 
dicularly, four  to  nine.  A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  longer 
than  wide.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  closely  pressed  down.  Warp, 
wool.  Each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prom- 
inent at  back,  or  one  is  slightly  depressed  below  the  other.  Weft, 
wool  of  medium  diameter  and  generally  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  clipped 
long.  Border,  usually  of  three  stripes.  Sides,  generally  a double 
overcasting,  occasionally  a selvage.  Both  ends,  generally  a web 
coloured  red  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  very  loose.  Weave  at  back 
is  of  moderately  coarse  grain.  Length,  carpet  sizes.  Usual  width, 
two  thirds  to  four  fifths  length. 

Ak-Hissar.  — Almost  seventy-five  miles  by  rail  from  Smyrna 
and  a short  distance  to  the  west  of  Ghiordes  is  the  Turkish  town 
of  Ak-Hissar,  the  White  Citadel.  Even  before  the  building  of  the 
railroad  rugs  were  woven  in  this  district;  and  in  recent  years  the 


176 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


work-house  system  has  been  established,  and  large  quantities,  that 
bear  some  resemblance  to  the  modern  products  of  Kulah  and  Oushak, 
have  been  exported. 

Demirdji.  — Half  a century  ago  the  town  of  Demirdji  was  al- 
most uninhabited;  but  as  a result  of  the  Occidental  demand  for 
Oriental  rugs  and  the  disappearance  of  old  pieces,  it  has  grown  to 
be  an  important  manufacturing  centre.  Many  of  its  weavers  learned 
their  trade  at  the  historic  Ghiordes,  which  is  about  twenty-five 
miles  distant;  but  the  fabrics  are  more  closely  woven  and  the 
wool  is  more  carefully  selected  than  is  the  case  with  the  modern 
Ghiordes. 

Kutayah.  — On  the  main  railroad  that  will  eventually  connect 
the  Bosphorus  with  the  Euphrates  is  the  town  of  Kutayah.  As  it 
is  on  the  edge  of  the  Anatolian  plateau,  wool  and  goat’s  hair  have 
been  for  a long  period  important  articles  in  its  trade.  Both  of  them 
are  now  used  in  the  local  manufacture  of  rugs,  which  in  a measure 
resemble  the  products  of  Oushak. 

Smyrna.  — The  location  of  Smyrna  on  a magnificent  harbour  and 
its  connection  by  rail  with  all  the  important  rug  districts  of  the  in- 
terior, have  made  it  the  principal  centre  for  the  export  trade  in  Asia 
Minor  rugs.  Many  of  the  people  are  also  largely  engaged  in  the 
industry  of  weaving,  but  almost  all  weavers  are  now  in  the  employ 
of  large  companies  who  furnish  the  materials  and  patterns.  As  a 
result,  the  Smyrna  rugs  are  mere  copies  of  well-known  types  of  other 
Turkish  pieces,  or,  as  is  generally  the  case,  of  stereotyped  patterns 
that  have  been  evolved  to  meet  the  requirements  of  European  and 
American  tastes.  Many  of  the  rugs,  to  be  sure,  are  well  woven  and 
serviceable,  but  they  lack  individuality  of  character. 

Melez.  — About  seventy -five  miles  to  the  south  of  Smyrna 
and  twenty  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is  the  town  of  Melassa,  or 
Melez.  It  is  now  little  known,  but  was  once  the  market  place  of 
an  important  rug-producing  district,  which  included  a large  part 
of  the  classic  province  of  Caria.  Accordingly,  the  pieces  that  came 
from  there  were  sometimes  called  Carian,  but  are  more  generally 
known  as  Melez. 

On  their  face  they  show  a close  relationship  to  the  Anatolians, 


'tfcfclbfc  h 


Plate  40.  Kabistan  Rug 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


177 


and  also,  though  in  a less  degree,  to  many  other  Asia  Minor  rugs; 
yet  as  is  to  be  expected  of  the  products  from  one  corner  of  the  country, 
they  have  a distinct  individuality  in  both  pattern  and  colour.  Oc- 
casionally an  old  piece  is  seen,  in  which  the  border  is  very  narrow 
and  the  whole  field  is  covered  with  parallel  stripes  on  which  are 
systematically  arranged  geometric  and  semi-floral  forms;  but  as  a 
rule  the  fields  are  not  much  wider,  and  often  less  wide,  than  each  of 
the  adjacent  borders.  Within  this  central  space  are  frequently  ar- 
ranged prominent  designs,  which  are  widely  different  from  the  de- 
signs of  any  other  rugs,  and  are  suggestive  of  Chinese  ornament, 
but  were  doubtless  derived  from  floral  or  tree  forms  (Plate  O,  Fig. 
12,  Page  291).  Moreover,  projecting  in  regular  order  from  the  alter- 
nate sides  of  the  narrow  border  stripe,  next  to  the  field,  are  some- 
times seen  thumb-like  figures,  that  fit  against  one  another  like  the 
cogs  of  a wheel  (Plate  H,  Fig.  15,  opp.  Page  194).  Each  of  these 
features,  though  not  always  present,  is  peculiar  to  this  class. 

Of  the  several  border  stripes,  the  central  is  generally  as  wide 
as  the  remainder  and  not  altogether  dissimilar  to  that  of  the  Ladiks. 
Very  frequently  it  consists  of  a row  of  palmettes  between  which  are 
conventionalised  leaves  and  flowers  on  slender  stems;  but  now  and 
then  the  palmettes  are  replaced  by  eight-pointed  stars  or  other  geo- 
metric figures,  and  the  intervening  spaces  filled  with  corresponding 
designs.  The  secondary  stripes  are  of  a pronounced  Caucasian  type; 
and  almost  invariably  in  a smaller  tertiary  stripe  is  represented  a 
waving  line  or  the  reciprocal  sawtooth. 

The  prayer  rugs  are  equally  characteristic.  In  typical  examples 
the  lines  defining  the  mihrab  descend  from  the  niche  to  meet  the 
sides  of  the  narrow  field  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  are 
then  deflected  towards  its  centre,  to  return  again  to  its  sides.  The 
resulting  drawing  shows  two  equilateral  triangles  on  each  side  of  the 
field  at  the  base  of  the  mihrab,  which  in  conjunction  with  the  upper 
sides  of  the  triangles  has  the  appearance  of  an  incomplete  diamond. 
This  effect,  moreover,  is  frequently  accentuated  by  a perpendicular 
row  of  diamonds  extending  from  just  below  the  niche  to  the  base  of 
the  field.  The  sides  of  mihrab,  field,  and  central  designs  are,  as  a 
rule,  fringed  with  small  geometric  or  conventionalised  floral  forms; 
and  in  the  spacious  spandrel  are  more  realistic  floral  designs  arranged 
on  a trellis-like  sub-pattern. 

This  individuality  of  pattern  is  accompanied  by  a less  marked 
yet  noticeable  individuality  of  colour  scheme.  As  is  the  case  with 


178 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


many  Bergamos,  the  principal  tone  is  a dark  red,  which  generally 
appears  in  the  central  field,  and  is  also  used  almost  without  excep- 
tion in  the  broad  end  webs,  the  side  selvages,  and  the  threads  of 
weft.  Ivory  white  for  the  spandrel,  some  yellow  and  green  for  the 
borders,  are  common  colours;  but  the  one  that  rarely  appears  in 
any  appreciable  quantity  in  other  rugs  is  a characteristic  tone  of 
lavender  or  mauve,  which  is  present  in  almost  every  old  Melez. 
Not  always  are  these  tones  pleasing,  as  many  of  the  rugs  have  been 
poorly  dyed;  but  there  are  other  pieces,  now  rapidly  growing  scarce, 
of  which  the  colours  are  exceedingly  rich  and  harmonious. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  with  minor 
quantities  of  blue,  yellow,  white,  and  some  mauve.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  eight;  perpendicularly,  six  to  eleven. 
A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  or  slightly 
longer.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  closely  pressed  down,  yet  the 
warp  does  not  show  at  back.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool  of 
small  diameter,  dyed  blue  or  red.  A thread  of  weft  generally  crosses 
four  times  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium 
length  and  sometimes  short.  Border,  wide,  from  three  to  seven 
stripes.  Sides,  a selvage  of  two  to  four  cords,  usually  coloured  red. 
Lower  end,  a red  web  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Upper  end,  a red  web, 
a braided  selvage,  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  loose. 
Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  four  and 
one  half  to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three  quarters 
length. 

Isbarta.  — In  the  town  of  Isbarta  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
province  of  Konieh  are  woven  rugs  which  are  sometimes  known 
to  the  trade  as  “Spartas.”  Like  many  other  pieces  made  to  meet 
the  Western  demand,  they  lack  spontaneous  individuality,  but  are 
often  of  excellent  quality  and  coloured  in  delicate  tones,  arranged 
harmoniously. 

Rhodian.  — Even  at  a very  early  period  the  people  of  the  islands 
bordering  the  southwestern  coast  of  Asia  Minor  produced  textile 
fabrics  that  rivalled  many  of  the  best  products  of  the  mainland. 
None  of  them  were  more  beautiful  or  more  interesting  than  those 
which  came  from  the  Island  of  Rhodes,  where  were  blended  the  vigor- 
ous Grecian  and  the  more  subtle  Oriental  arts.  Here  was  the  inspi- 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


179 


ration  of  the  sea,  cloudless  skies,  luxuriant  vegetation.  Here  was 
felt  the  deep  influence  of  the  Mohammedan  and  Christian  religions, 
as  well  as  an  early  pagan  mythology;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  cathedral  walls  and  picturesque  church  of  the  valiant  knights 
of  St.  John  made  an  impression  on  the  weavers.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  the  fabrics  should  be  of  deep,  rich  colour  frill  of  sug- 
gestion, and  that  the  drawing  of  the  long  central  panels  should 
remind  one  of  cathedral  windows. 

Of  the  many  beautiful  rugs  formerly  woven  in  Rhodes  only  a 
few  now  remain,  and  these  are  generally  in  the  hands  of  collectors. 
Some  are  odjaliks,  some  namazliks,  some  sedjadehs;  but  all,  with 
the  exception  of  a few  crude  and  coarsely  woven  pieces,  have  colours 
and  weave  that  bespeak  a ripe  age,  amounting  in  many  instances  to 
one  hundred  years  or  more.  On  the  field  of  odjaliks  are  represented 
as  a rule  the  usual  hexagonal  figure  with  two  sides  at  each  end  form- 
ing a triangle;  and  on  the  fields  of  the  namazliks  are  prayer  arches 
which,  though  characteristic,  never  equal  the  graceful  drawing 
seen  in  Ghiordes  rugs.  It  is  the  sedjadehs  that  awaken  the  greatest 
interest,  as  they  have  some  striking  peculiarities  rarely  seen  in  rugs 
of  the  mainland. 

Their  field  is  divided  into  two  or  three  panels  that  extend  almost 
the  full  length  of  the  field,  and  terminate  at  one  end  in  flat  and 
often  serrated  arches.  The  spandrels  are  small;  and  placed  trans- 
versely above  them  is  a low  panel,  that  contains  designs  of  mechan- 
ically drawn  leaves,  Vandykes  resembling  those  of  Ladiks,  and  other 
figures  common  to  Asia  Minor  rugs.  In  fact,  these  pieces  at  once 
suggest  prayer  rugs  containing  two  or  more  prayer  arches,  but 
the  pattern  is  generally  regarded  as  a representation  of  cathedral 
windows.  Both  colouring  and  designs  give  force  to  this  idea.  In 
each  of  the  principal  panels  is  a different  ground  colour,  as  red,  blue, 
or  green,  which  is  never  gaudy,  yet  exceedingly  rich  on  account 
of  the  depth  of  pile;  and  in  the  overlying  figures  there  is  often  a 
strangely  contrasting  splendour  of  brighter  colouring.  Furthermore, 
one  of  the  most  usual  of  these  designs,  arranged  like  pole  medallions, 
consists  of  large  eight-pointed  stars  with  effulgent  rays  of  brilliant 
hues.  As  we  look  at  some  of  the  rare  old  pieces  with  this  pattern, 
cathedral  windows  almost  appear  before  us  with  bright  sunshine 
streaming  in  golden  rays  through  the  stained  glass  and  brighten- 
ing the  interior  with  its  more  sombre  tones  of  “dim  religious 
light.”  Sometimes  the  pole  design  is  modified  so  as  to  suggest  a 


180 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


tree  of  life  extending  from  one  end  of  the  panel  to  the  other.  An 
equally  common  design  represents  six  very  mechanically  drawn  leaves 
assembled  in  the  form  of  a medallion  (Plate  O,  Fig.  15,  Page  291). 
Each  of  these  leaves  has  two  straight  edges  meeting  at  right  angles 
and  containing  at  the  corner  a small  rectangular  spot;  but  the  re- 
maining sides  that  form  the  circumference  of  the  medallion  are 
deeply  serrated,  so  as  to  produce  much  the  same  effect  as  the  rays 
of  effulgent  stars.  In  the  fields  are  also  frequently  seen  latch-hooks, 
and  occasionally  checkerboards  with  different  colours  for  separate 
squares. 

Between  field  and  border  is  a close  correspondence  in  both  colours 
and  small  designs.  The  latter  consist  principally  of  geometric  and 
semi-floral  forms,  as  eight-pointed  stars,  the  octagonal  disc,  and  the 
geometric  leaf  that  is  typical  of  Kulah  rugs.  No  other  design  is 
more  prevalent  than  the  last,  which  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of 
these  rugs.  Sometimes  it  is  drawn  most  realistically  so  as  to  resemble 
the  flower  forms  so  common  in  spandrels  of  Kulahs;  but  again  the 
outlines  are  most  conventional  with  square-like  projections  at  the 
edges  and  a bar  of  underlying  field  of  contrasting  colour  crossing 
the  face  diagonally,  as  in  the  border  stripe  of  Plate  G,  Fig.  13, 
(opp.  Page  192),  which  shows  the  foliate  origin  of  the  latter. 

The  name  “Makri”  is  frequently  applied  to  these  rugs,  since 
they  were  often  bought  in  the  city  of  that  name,  which  is  one  of 
the  harbours  of  Southwestern  Asia  Minor  nearest  to  Rhodes. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  also 
considerable  yellow,  green,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  five  to  eight;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  nine. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp 
shows  in  places  at  back.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back,  occasionally 
one  to  each  knot  is  slightly  depressed  below  the  other.  Weft,  wool, 
of  medium  diameter,  coloured  red.  A thread  of  warp  usually  crosses 
twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  rarely  only  once,  and  some- 
times as  many  as  four  times.  Pile,  wool,  clipped  long.  Border, 
two  to  three  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage  of  two,  three,  or  four 
cords,  usually  coloured  red  or  blue.  Lower  end,  a web,  either  red  or 
of  several  colours,  and  long  warp  fringe  hanging  loose  or  braided. 
Upper  end,  a web,  either  red  or  of  several  colours,  beyond  which  is 
often  a heavy  braided  selvage;  also  a long  warp  fringe  hanging  loose 
or  braided.  Texture,  moderately  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly 


Plate  41.  Kuba  Rug 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS  181 

coarse  grain.  Length,  four  to  seven  feet.  Width,  three  fifths  to  four 
fifths  length. 

Broussa.  — At  the  base  of  Mt.  Olympus  and  distant  only 
twenty-five  miles  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  rail,  is  the  city  of  Broussa.  By  reason  of  this  location 
and  its  proximity  to  Constantinople,  it  is  an  important  commercial 
centre;  and  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  the  wool  and  silk  ob- 
tained in  the  surrounding  country,  rugs  are  woven  here  for  foreign 
markets.  The  fabrics  are  stoutly  made  and  compare  favourably  with 
those  of  Smyrna. 

Hereke.  — In  the  town  of  Hereke,  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
is  a Turkish  factory,  where  large  numbers  of  silk  rugs  are  manufac- 
tured. Most  of  the  silk  is  obtained  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
and  from  the  country  about  Mt.  Olympus.  As  the  early  weavers 
were  brought  from  Kirman  to  instruct  the  artisans  of  the  Sultan, 
and  the  patterns  have  been  largely  copied  from  old  Persian  and 
Asia  Minor  pieces,  it  is  not  surprising  that  many  of  the  fabrics 
compare  favourably  with  the  silk  rugs  of  Persia. 

Koniehs.  — At  the  base  of  Mt.  Taurus  and  overlooking  the  salt 
desert  of  Central  Asia  Minor  is  the  city  of  Konieh.  Within  its  pres- 
ent walls  is  all  that  is  left  of  the  ancient  Iconium  that  opened  its 
gates  to  Xenophon,  Cyrus,  and  Alexander,  but  drove  forth  the 
Apostle  Paul.  Finally  it  surrendered  to  Seljukian  conquerors, 
who,  realising  the  importance  of  its  situation  on  one  of  the  great 
highways  between  east  and  west  and  in  an  oasis  of  well-watered 
fields,  orchards,  and  gardens  which  face  a great  barren  plain,  es- 
tablished there  a Mussulman  capital,  that  became  noted  for  its 
opulence  and  culture.  In  later  years  it  successfully  resisted  the 
assault  of  Frederic  Barbarossa;  but  subsequently  it  declined,  until 
now  the  only  remaining  vestiges  of  its  former  importance  are  several 
colleges,  one  hundred  mosques,  and  the  famous  green  tower  sur- 
mounting the  tomb  of  the  whirling  dervishes. 

In  few  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  greater  inducements 
offered  to  the  rug  weavers.  Surrounding  them  lay  hills  and  plains 
that  produced  sheep  with  soft,  fine  fleeces.  On  the  oaks  that  grew 
not  far  to  the  north  lived  the  kermes,  from  which  were  obtained  the 
vermilion  dyes  famous  even  through  Persia.  The  political  and  com- 


182 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


mercial  importance  of  the  city,  as  well  as  the  religious  fanaticism 
of  the  people,  aided  them.  Accordingly  a great  many  choice  pieces 
were  formerly  woven  there,  but  on  account  of  the  remoteness  of 
the  city  from  the  markets  that  supplied  Europe,  few  found  their 
way  into  channels  of  trade. 

Large  numbers  were  used  solely  for  religious  purposes,  but  other 
kinds  are  as  frequently  seen.  All  of  them  contain  both  geometric 
and  floral  forms.  The  geometric  forms  resemble  designs  prevalent 
in  Eastern  Anatolia  and  in  Caucasia,  such  as  latch-hooks,  eight- 
pointed  stars,  and  barber-pole  stripes;  and  the  floral  forms  consist 
of  mechanically  drawn  palm  leaves  and  the  tree-of-life  design. 

Probably  in  no  other  Asia  Minor  rug  is  such  latitude  in  the  draw- 
ing of  the  prayer  arch.  Sometimes  it  begins  below  the  middle  of 
the  field  and  rises  at  a sharp  angle  to  a point  near  the  upper  end; 
again  it  may  be  exceedingly  flat;  but  generally  it  has  the  same  pitch 
as  the  arches  of  Kulahs,  and,  like  them,  the  sides,  as  a rule,  are 
stepped  or  serrated.  Furthermore,  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  latch- 
hooks  projecting  from  each  step  or  serration  into  the  spandrel, 
which  is  filled  with  small  floral  and  geometric  forms.  From  the  niche 
is  occasionally  suspended  a lamp;  and  arranged  against  the  border, 
on  each  side  of  the  field,  is  a row  of  conventionalised  flowers,  or  small 
sprigs  which  resemble  three  triangular-shaped  petals  at  the  end  of 
a straight  stem.  These  floral  or  foliate  designs  are  one  of  the 
most  constant  features  of  this  class.  The  borders  are  more  geo- 
metric than  those  of  almost  any  other  Asia  Minor  rugs,  and  even 
when  vines  are  represented  they  are  drawn  with  stiff  formality. 

Whatever  may  be  lacking  in  artistic  drawing  is  frequently  atoned 
for  by  the  excellence  of  the  colour  scheme,  which  occasionally  rivals 
that  of  the  Ghiordes  and  Kulahs.  Rich  reds  or  blues  are  almost 
invariably  found  in  the  fields,  where  there  is  sufficient  depth  of  nap 
to  enhance  their  richness;  and  the  borders  are  brightened  by  at- 
tractive tones  of  yellow,  green,  and  white.  Contrasted  with  these 
old  pieces,  the  modern  rugs  of  Konieh  have  little  artistic  merit,  but 
are  large  pieces  desirable  solely  for  their  durability. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  with 
minor  quantities  of  yellow,  green,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  five  to  eight;  perpendicularly,  six  to  ten.  The 
rows  of  knots  are  not  very  firmly  pressed  down.  Warp,  wool;  each 
of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back. 
Weft,  wool,  of  medium  diameter,  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft  crosses 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


183 


twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length. 
Border,  from  two  to  five  stripes,  with  frequently  an  outer  edging. 
Sides,  generally  a selvage  of  two  or  three  cords,  but  occasionally  an 
overcasting.  Both  ends,  a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  only  moder- 
ately firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length, 
four  and  one  half  to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three 
quarters  length. 

Ladiks.  — On  the  ruins  of  ancient  Laodicea  is  the  mud-walled 
town  of  the  village  of  Ladik,  once  the  centre  of  an  important  rug 
industry.  Among  the  surrounding  hills  are  still  woven  pieces  which 
resemble  in  pattern,  though  they  poorly  imitate  in  weave  and  colour, 
the  early  prototypes  that  have  been  classed  among  the  masterpieces 
of  Asia  Minor.  Few  of  these  old  rugs  remain,  and  they  are  often 
badly  worn  in  spots;  yet  they  display  tones  mellowed  by  the  touch 
of  more  than  a century,  and  rival  the  Gliiordes  in  beauty  of  design. 

As  is  the  case  with  other  classes  of  rugs  woven  in  Turkish  coun- 
tries, the  sedjadehs  and  odjaliks  lack  the  interesting  details  of  the 
namazliks,  from  which  they  widely  differ.  On  the  central  fields  of 
many  of  them  are  oblong  hexagonal-shaped  medallions,  often  three 
in  number,  that  contain  designs  of  stars  or  other  geometric  figures. 
Between  the  fields  and  the  borders  of  the  ends  are  generally  spa- 
cious panels,  on  which  are  represented  rows  of  Vandykes.  These 
figures  are  one  of  the  most  permanent  characteristics  of  this  class 
of  rugs;  and  though  their  origin  is  uncertain,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  they  are  derived  from  arrowheads,  which  were  one  of  the  em- 
blems of  the  Chaldean  deity  Hoa,  the  reputed  inventor  of  Cufic 
writing.  The  borders  are  also  geometric,  consisting,  as  a rule,  of 
three  stripes,  of  which  the  central  contains  an  angular  vine  that  in 
different  pieces  may  be  very  simple  or  very  ornate.  One  of  the 
central  stripes  often  adopted  is  represented  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  10  (opp. 
Page  192)  and  shows  a vine  with  conventionalised  leaf.  Latch -hooks 
are  common  in  the  sedjadehs,  and  when  floral  forms  are  present  the 
fact  is  generally  disguised  by  the  harsh,  mechanical  drawing. 

In  contrast  with  these  pieces,  the  namazliks  with  their  interest- 
ing arches  and  dainty  drawing  are  most  pleasing.  In  a large  number 
of  them  the  central  fields  occupy  about  one  half  the  space  within 
the  border,  the  spandrels  extend  for  a considerable  distance  above 
the  arch,  and  the  panels  are  larger  than  in  any  other  prayer  rug. 
Occasionally  arches  resembling  those  of  the  Ghiordes  or  Kir-Shehrs 


184 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


are  seen;  but  they  are  to  be  regarded  merely  as  copies,  since  the 
typical  arch  differs  widely  from  any  other  and  gives  to  this  class 
one  of  its  greatest  charms.  Instead  of  rising  to  the  apex  in  lines  of 
many  serrations,  each  side  of  the  arch  rises  from  the  border  and  falls 
in  one  large  serration,  then  rises  again  to  form  the  niche.  The  arch  is 
often  fringed  with  latch-hooks,  and  extending  above  the  apex  of  each 
serration  and  the  niche  are  perpendicular  devices  that  may,  also, 
be  a development  of  the  latch-hook,  since  they  have  not  been  traced 
to  any  other  satisfactory  origin.  But  whatever  their  origin  may  be, 
their  shape  as  well  as  that  of  the  arch  at  once  suggests  Saracenic 
mosques.  In  the  spandrel  are  constantly  seen  serrated  leaves, 
rosettes,  and  designs  peculiar  to  the  Ladik.  The  large  panel  is 
equally  typical,  and  consists  of  reciprocally  drawn  Vandykes,  from 
which  rise  perpendicular  stems  supporting  leaves  and  pomegranates. 
These  are  generally  five  in  number,  and  are  so  gracefully  and  natural- 
istically  drawn  that  it  seems  surprising  that  the  Vandykes,  from  which 
they  spring,  are  ornamented  with  a profusion  of  latch-hooks.  The 
central  fields  are  sometimes  without  ornament,  but  as  a rule  they 
contain  some  suggestions  of  the  tree  of  life  either  in  the  central  de- 
sign or  in  the  three-leaf  sprigs  arranged  about  the  borders.  The 
latter  are  as  characteristic  as  any  other  part  of  the  rug,  and  consist 
of  four  stripes  separated  by  dotted  lines.  The  main  stripe  most 
frequently  contains  a row  of  delicately  drawn  lilies  alternating  with 
rosettes,  though  occasionally  a very  formal  vine  with  convention- 
alised leaf  is  substituted  for  it.  In  the  stripes  at  each  side  are  very 
angular  vines  with  three-cleft  leaves,  and  in  the  narrow  inner-most 
stripe  is  generally  a ribbon  pattern. 

All  of  the  drawing  has  clear  definition  accentuated  by  rich  and 
strongly  contrasting  colours.  The  fields  of  the  namazliks,  like 
those  of  the  Ghiordes,  are  entirely  occupied  by  masses  of  unshaded 
blue,  red,  or  brown,  that  are  relieved  only  by  the  colours  of  super- 
imposed designs.  But  as  is  not  the  case  with  Ghiordes,  there  is  often 
a strong  contrast  between  the  colours  of  centre  and  ends;  yet  the 
tones  are  always  in  perfect  harmony.  Other  rugs  may  have  more 
delicate  drawing  or  more  exquisite  finish;  but  in  the  barbaric  ar- 
rangement of  strong  colour  and  in  the  uniqueness  of  graceful  designs, 
none  exceed  the  old  prayer  Ladiks. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  blue,  with 
minor  quantities  of  green,  yellow,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  nine  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  ten  to 


Plate  4‘2.  Chichi  Rug 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


185 


thirteen.  A half  knot  as  it  appears  at  back  is  longer  than  wide. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down  so  that  the  warp  is  concealed 
at  back.  Warp , wool.  One  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot 
is  generally  depressed  below  the  other  at  the  back.  Weft,  wool  of 
fine  diameter,  generally  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length. 
Border,  three  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  a red  added  selvage  of  two  or 
three  cords.  Both  ends,  a narrow  web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  mod- 
erately firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  medium  grain.  Usual  length,  four 
and  one  half  to  seven  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  two  thirds 
length. 

Kir-Shehrs.  — To  the  north  of  the  great  salt  desert  and  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Angora  is  the  town  of  Kir- 
Shehr.  It  stands  between  two  mountain  ranges,  on  which  are  raised 
sheep  with  fine  fleeces,  and  is  on  the  branch  of  the  Kizil  Irmak, 
whose  waters  are  well  suited  for  preparing  wool  for  the  dyes  obtained 
in  the  surrounding  country.  On  account  of  the  excellence  of  wool, 
water,  and  natural  dyes,  as  well  as  the  remoteness  of  the  town  from 
main  highways  of  travel,  many  of  the  old  rugs  were  excellent  pieces, 
free  from  the  taint  of  Western  influences,  and  possessing  the  charm 
of  individuality.  It  was  due,  moreover,  to  the  fact  that  its  three 
or  four  thousand  inhabitants,  and  the  Turkomans  who  roamed 
the  surrounding  country,  rarely  felt  the  influence  of  larger  cities 
that  they  were  so  untrammelled  by  conventionalities.  Unhesitat- 
ingly they  grouped  together  large  spaces  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue, 
as  well  as  grass-coloured  green,  for  which  they  had  a particular  fond- 
ness and  employed  to  a greater  extent  than  almost  any  other  weavers ; 
yet  in  the  case  of  these  old  pieces  the  artistic  sense  is  rarely  shocked, 
since  the  individual  colours  are  good  and  the  tones  are  harmonious. 
Furthermore,  the  patterns  show  an  unusual  blending  of  floral  and 
geometric  forms. 

Most  of  the  pieces  come  in  moderate  sizes;  some  are  mats, 
others  small  sedjadehs,  but  the  choicest  are  the  prayer  rugs.  The 
serrated  sides  of  the  arch,  which  rise  at  a steep  angle  from  the  centres 
of  each  side  of  the  rather  narrow  fields,  are  formed  of  several  parallel 
lines  of  different  colour.  In  a not  unusual  rug,  for  instance,  eight 
narrow  lines  separating  the  spandrel  of  grass-green  from  the  inner 
field  of  brick-red  appeared  in  the  following  order:  red,  black,  white, 
yellow,  lavender,  yellow,  red,  and  blue.  The  inmost  line  is  fre- 


186 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


quently  fringed  with  tri-cleft  floral  forms,  which,  as  in  Koniehs, 
extend  in  a row  along  the  sides  of  the  field.  From  the  niche  is  usually 
suspended  the  design  of  an  inverted  tree  of  life,  and  above  it  are  pro- 
jected latch-hooks  or  similar  devices.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  two 
arches,  and  there  are  sometimes  as  many  as  four,  placed  one  within 
the  other.  The  spacious  spandrel  that  is  continued  in  narrow 
stripes  along  the  borders  to  the  bottom  of  the  field  is  covered  with 
geometric  or  conventionalised  floral  forms ; and  the  horizontal  panel, 
which  may  be  placed  at  either  end  of  the  field,  contains  designs  in 
harmony  with  the  remaining  parts. 

On  the  whole,  the  wide  borders  have  some  of  the  most  char- 
acteristic features ; for,  as  a rule,  not  only  are  one  or  two  of  the  stripes 
of  a peculiar  cherry  red  and  one  a rich  yellow,  but  three  or  four 
of  the  narrow  stripes  next  to  the  field  are  similar  in  width  and  or- 
namentation to  those  of  the  Kulah.  When  contrasted  with  them 
the  broad  central  stripe  and  the  outer  one  seem  lacking  in  har- 
mony, for  they  are  distinctly  floral  and  suggestive  of  Persian 
influences. 

On  account  of  the  quality  of  their  wool  and  weave,  these  rugs 
are  soft  and  flexible.  They  resemble  in  some  minor  details  others 
of  the  Anatolian  plateau,  yet  they  can  be  distinguished  by  the  pres- 
ence of  grass-green  colour  and  the  shape  of  the  prayer  arch.  The  nap 
of  these  old  pieces,  like  that  of  Kulahs  and  Ladiks,  is  of  medium 
length;  though  in  modern  pieces  it  is  often  longer,  and  the  weft 
and  webs  are  coloured  as  are  those  of  Bergamos. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  green,  also 
some  blue,  brown,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  hori- 
zontally five  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  five  to  ten.  A half  knot  as  it 
appears  at  back  is  as  long  as,  or  longer  than,  wide.  The  rows  of 
knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  in  places  the  warp  shows. 
Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally 
prominent  at  back,  or  occasionally  one  is  slightly  depressed.  Weft, 
wool,  of  medium  or  coarse  diameter  and  generally  of  different  colours 
in  the  same  rug.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  from  two  to  six  times 
between  two  rows  of  knots,  varying  in  the  same  rug.  Pile,  wool, 
of  medium  length.  Border,  from  five  to  eight  stripes.  Sides,  a weft 
selvage  of  two,  three,  or  four  cords  of  different  colours.  Lower  end, 
web  and  warp  loops.  Upper  end,  a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture, 
loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  four  to  six 
feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  four  fifths  length. 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


187 


Anatolians.  — To  all  of  Asia  Minor  was  once  applied  the  term 
“Anatolia,”  which  signifies  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun;  so  that  any 
product  of  this  country  might  well  be  called  Anatolian,  just  as  any 
product  of  Persia  might  be  called  Iranian.  In  fact,  many  of  the  less 
known  classes,  as  the  Nigde,  Tuzla,  Mudjar,  and  even  the  Kir- 
Shehr,  Melez,  and  Konieh,  are  often  called  Anatolian.  But  as  there 
is  a special  type  of  rugs  known  as  Iranians,  so  is  there  a special  type 
known  as  Anatolians.  They  are,  however,  a mixed  lot,  that  come 
from  parts  of  a wide  stretch  of  territory,  extending  over  the  interior 
table-land  to  the  home  of  the  Kurds,  and  incorporating  ideas  re- 
ceived from  many  districts.  It  is,  accordingly,  difficult  to  define 
them  as  a type;  but,  as  a rule,  they  are  small  pieces  that  are  often 
used  for  mats  and  pillows,  with  moderately  long  nap  of  soft,  fioccy 
wool,  with  narrow  borders,  and  a colour  scheme  that  inclines  to 
bright  and  sometimes  garish  colours. 

Doubtless  the  best  of  them  come  from  the  provinces  of  Angora 
and  Konieh,  lying  within  a radius  of  one  hundred  miles  of  Lake 
Tuz  Gul.  Here  can  be  obtained  the  best  of  wool  and  dyes;  and  in 
some  of  the  old  pieces  appears  the  artistic  drawing  of  the  more  im- 
portant rug  centres  farther  to  the  west,  but  with  a strange  blending 
of  geometric  and  floral  forms.  Eight -pointed  stars  as  well  as  latch- 
hooks  are  seen  everywhere,  and  a very  old  design  with  the  shape  of 
ram’s  horns  is  frequently  used.  In  many  of  the  prayer  rugs  the  arches 
are  of  the  Kir-Shehr  order,  though  the  panels  may  contain  Vandykes 
suggestive  of  Ladiks.  There  is  the  greatest  latitude  in  the  width 
of  the  borders,  which  occasionally  are  their  most  noticeable  feature 
and  again  are  most  insignificant;  but  in  either  case  they  rarely  con- 
tain more  than  three  stripes,  and  not  infrequently  only  one.  Red, 
blue,  green,  and  brown  are  the  usual  colours,  but  pink  and  canary 
yellow  are  sometimes  used. 

Farther  to  the  east,  among  the  foot-hills  of  the  Anti-Taurus  moun- 
tains, is  woven  a coarser  type  by  the  Kurdish  tribes.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  wool  and  dyes  they  have  little  to  their  credit;  for  their 
usual  unsymmetric  shapes,  crude  geometric  designs,  long  uneven  nap, 
and  braided  fringe  of  warp  at  the  ends  are  lacking  in  all  elegance. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  green, 
brown,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally 
five  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  six  to  twelve.  A half  knot,  as  it  appears 
at  back,  is  generally  as  long  as  wide,  or  longer.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  yet  the  warp  is  frequently  concealed 


188 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


at  back.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot 
is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  or  coarse 
diameter  and  usually  dyed.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  two,  three, 
and  four  times  between  two  rows  of  knots  frequently  varying  in 
the  same  piece.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length.  Border,  one  to  three 
stripes,  and  occasionally  an  edging.  Sides,  a weft  selvage  of  two  or 
three  cords.  Both  ends,  a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  loose. 
Weave  at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  two  and  one  half  to 
six  feet.  Usual  width,  one  half  to  two  thirds  length. 

Karamans.  — At  the  foot  of  Mt.  Taurus  and  overlooking  the 
plain  that  stretches  northward  into  the  heart  of  Asia  Minor  is  the 
city  of  Karaman.  Before  its  subjection  in  the  XV  Century  by 
Bajazet  II  and  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  Konieh,  that  lies  sixty 
miles  to  the  northwest,  it  was  the  seat  of  a Turkish  government 
extending  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  but  to-day  the  only  reminder 
of  its  early  importance  are  several  Saracenic  mosques  covered  with 
rich  arabesques.  Of  the  rugs  woven  there  during  the  early  period 
almost  nothing  is  known,  but,  on  account  of  the  former  importance 
of  the  city,  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  compared  favourably 
with  the  rugs  of  other  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  of  the  modern  products  are  among  the  poorest  rugs  of 
the  East,  and  contain  little  artistic  merit.  A feature  peculiar  to 
many  of  them  is  the  use  of  natural  wool  of  reddish  brown  colour, 
obtained  from  sheep  which  live  on  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  south 
of  Karaman.  The  pile  is  long,  the  weave  is  never  very  firm,  and 
at  each  end  is  a coloured  web. 

Sivas.  — In  the  city  of  Sivas,  at  the  eastern  end  of  Anatolia, 
and  in  the  villages  of  the  surrounding  plain,  girls  and  women  have 
woven  rugs  from  time  immemorial;  but  on  account  of  the  difficul- 
ties of  transportation  few  of  them  reach  this  country.  The  care- 
fully finished  sides  and  ends,  the  formal  character  of  the  pattern,  and 
the  almost  harsh  effect  of  the  strongly  contrasting  colours  of  many 
of  them  are  unlike  what  are  found  in  the  nomadic  rugs  made  farther 
to  the  east  and  west.  In  the  weave  is  a hint  of  Persian  influence; 
for  not  only  are  both  warp  and  weft  of  cotton,  but  the  warp  is  of 
small  diameter  and  well  spun,  and  one  of  the  two  threads  to  which 
a knot  is  tied  is  depressed  below  the  other.  The  pattern,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  distinctly  Turkish.  One  of  the  best  known  types  consists 


Plate  43.  Tcherkess  Rug 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


189 


of  a large  hexagon  that  reaches  to  the  sides  and  ends,  and  contains 
within  it  a medallion  on  which  are  designs  similar  to  those  seen  in 
Bergamos.  On  the  white  field  surrounding  the  medallion  are  often 
small  rosettes  and  floral  figures.  The  corners  of  the  field  may  be 
fringed  with  running  latch-hooks  or  a row  of  formal  T’s,  and  contain 
a rosette  at  their  centre.  The  borders  are  rarely  wide,  and  often 
consist  of  a single  stripe  that  contains  some  conventionalised  floral 
form.  Although  these  rugs  are  well  woven,  their  crude  blending 
of  floral  and  geometric  figures,  as  well  as  their  formality  of  drawing, 
which  is  accentuated  by  the  shortness  of  the  nap,  are  most  sugges- 
tive of  Occidental  conventions. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  white;  also 
dull  blue,  green,  and  light  yellow.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch 
horizontally  seven  to  eleven;  perpendicularly,  nine  to  fifteen.  A 
half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  not  as  long  as  wide.  The  rows 
of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  does  not  show  at  back. 
Warp,  cotton,  well  spun  and  of  small  diameter.  One  of  the  two 
threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the  other  at  back  and 
sometimes  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft,  cotton,  of  medium  di- 
ameter. A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of 
knots.  Pile,  wool  of  short  to  medium  length.  Border,  narrow, 
one  to  three  stripes.  Sides,  an  added  selvage  of  four  or  five  cords  at- 
tached in  places,  and  with  weft  encircling  inner  cord  of  selvage.  Both 
ends,  narrow  web  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at 
back  is  only  slightly  coarse.  Usual  length,  three  and  one  half  to  six 
and  one  half  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  four  fifths  length. 

Mudjars.  — Near  the  river  Kizel  Irmak  in  Central  Asia  Minor 
is  the  city  of  Mudjar,  which  produces  rugs  that  occasionally  reach 
this  country.  They  are  often  classed  as  Anatolians,  but  their  colour 
scheme  covers  a wider  range,  including  red,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
mauve,  and  pink,  all  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  same  piece.  In 
fact  no  other  rug  of  Asia  Minor  contains  as  a rule  so  many  colours, 
which  appear  in  the  broad  borders  of  old,  well-woven  pieces  with 
glistening  wool  almost  like  mosaic  work.  Many  of  this  class  are 
namazliks  with  arches  very  similar  to  the  arches  in  the  rugs  of 
Kir-Shehr,  which  is  distant  only  twenty-five  miles  to  the  north; 
and  in  the  panels  above  the  spandrel  are  not  infrequently  designs 
of  Vandykes  borrowed  from  the  Ladiks.  Some  suggestion  of  the 
tree  of  life  often  appears  in  the  field,  and  again  rows  of  flowers  may 


190  ORIENTAL  RUGS 

extend  into  it  from  the  sides.  Some  of  the  best  examples  are  very- 
handsome. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours , principally  red,  yellow,  blue, 

green,  and  ivory,  also  mauve  and  pink.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  twelve. 
Warp,  wool.  Each  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot 
is  frequently  equally  prominent  at  the  back,  but  generally  one  is 
depressed  below  the  other.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  to  coarse  diameter 
dyed  red  or  brown.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  broad, 
of  three  to  four  stripes.  Sides,  a three-cord  selvage,  frequently  red. 
Both  ends,  coloured  webs  and  fringe.  Texture,  loose.  Weave,  moder- 
ately coarse.  Usual  length,  four  to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds 
to  three  quarters  length. 

Nigdes.  — Near  the  base  of  the  Anti-Taurus  mountains  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  province  of  Konieh  is  the  city  of  Nigde,  which 
is  little  known  in  this  country  as  a rug-producing  centre,  though  its 
fabrics  reach  Europe.  Many  of  them  are  namazliks,  that  are 
distinguished  by  their  high  geometric  arches.  The  borders  often 
show  the  influence  of  the  Kurdish  tribes,  and  contain  patterns 
common  in  the  Mesopotamian  valley;  but  their  colour  scheme  of 
red,  blue,  and  yellow  more  closely  resembles  the  Anatolian.  Most 
of  them  are  of  small  size  and  are  poorly  woven. 

Tuzlas.  — Another  class  of  Asia  Minor  rugs  rarely  seen  are  the 
Tuzlas.  They  are  generally  regarded  as  Anatolians,  but  are  made 
by  people  who  live  about  Lake  Tuz  Gul  in  the  province  of  Konieh. 
Some  of  them  are  well  woven,  and  have  soft  woollen  pile  and  attrac- 
tive patterns.  The  prayer  arch  of  the  namazliks  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  the  arch  of  the  Kir-Shehrs;  the  panel  is  relatively  high; 
and  not  infrequently  the  borders  have  rosettes  similar  to  those  of 
Bergamos.  The  principal  colours  are  red,  blue,  green,  and  ivory. 

Kaisariyeh.  — One  of  the  few  Asia  Minor  centres  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silk  textiles  is  the  city  of  Kaisariyeh,  the  ancient  Caesarea, 
near  the  eastern  part  of  Anatolia.  Formerly  rugs  of  excellent  quality 
were  made  there;  but  the  modern  products  are,  as  a rule,  inferior 
both  in  workmanship  and  material  to  those  of  Hereke.  Frequently 
their  dyes  are  aniline  and  the  colours  garish.  Many  of  them  are 


COLOUR  PLATE  VII—LADIK  PRAYER  RUG 


The  rug  here  represented  conforms  in  every  particular  to  one  of  the 
best  types  of  Ladik  prayer  rugs.  It  contains  the  beautiful  border  stripe 
of  Rhodian  lilies,  the  pomegranates  and  Vandykes  in  the  panel  below 
the  central  field,  and  the  queer  designs  of  scrolls  and  serrated  leaves  so 
peculiar  to  these  rugs.  It  is  interesting  to  see  how  the  pattern  of  the 
innermost  stripe,  which  consists  of  a row  of  S-forms  at  the  top  and  sides, 
is  changed  so  as  to  resemble  a ribbon  at  the  bottom,  to  note  the  eight- 
pointed  stars  resting  on  octagons  in  the  lower  panel,  so  suggestive  of 
nomads,  and  also  the  designs  which  have  been  placed  near  the  two  corners 
on  the  left,  between  the  rosettes  and  Rhodian  lilies  of  the  main  stripe, 
as  if  to  divert  the  spell  of  the  “evil-eye.”  Such  irregularities,  denoting 
the  idiosyncrasies  of  the  weaver,  add  to  the  charm  of  Oriental  rugs. 

Loaned  by  Mr.  Hulett  C.  Merritt 


OT&  PkATMkl  iri  arSklfl  5lTv30100 


aAX  \o  asto  Os  toWssXtov$  \mts  :■  m WWy&atc^at  a-soA  ^vrv  aAT 

aq’nXx  taWoA  Vi'AVlueaA  aAX  xstsoXstoo  i\  .x^sst  ta\|fms  AYW1  \o  xaq\sX  XxaA 
'.yoXaA  Xastoq;  aAX  m xaA\sW»«  Wo  xaiostot^asttoq;  csAX  txasXsX  stoYboAH.  “Vo 
ox  xattoaX  bsYcmax  Wo  xRotox  \o  xst\s.Yxab  taassp  aA-X  Wo  tSAas\  XmXstao  aoX 
oAi  \o  tnasXoq-  aAX  asoA  aax  oX  \mVXxataXstY  xs  X\  .x%vn  axaAX  oX  toYW>a<$ 
<xabYx  Wo  poX  aAX  Xo  xstrto\-&  \p  nso*v  > V>  xXxYxstoo  AoYAw  .acjYtXx  XxostnArntY 
-XA\>Ya  sAX  aXpss  oX  ,stf©X5oA  aAX  X»  ttoAAYt  o akWax&t  os  xo  ox  ba\wtoAo  xY 
\o  att$Xxa\s\mx  ox  .Aassoq;  taxwA  aAX  sv  xstovvoXoo  «o  \vnYXxat  xtoXx  feaXstYocj 
xtasma  <mX  aAX  toast  baosAq  staaP  atoP  AaYAw  ? t^Yxab  aAX  oxXo  Wo  <xWsttost 
,0'rVv'sx  stYostt  aAX  \o  xaYVsi  stoYboAYI  Wo  xaXXaxot  aAX  staawXaA  <X\aX  aAX  sto 
QstsXostalb  ^xaYXYtpYvs^attY  s\om&  '''.a^a-Xs-sa11  as\X  \o  Raqx  aAX  XtasYb  oX  \Y  xo 
.xosvt  XoXstaYtQ  \o  stttoAo  aAx  oX  Wo  <*moaw  aAX  \o  xaYxo'toss\?xoYbY  aAX 

iis’malS.  ' ‘ XtebvH.  aIJL  \ri  YsawaoJ. 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


191 


prayer  rugs  with  arches  resembling  the  Ghiordes  pattern,  but  their 
borders  are  more  conventional.  Woollen  rugs  which  are  copies  of 
other  well-known  Asia  Minor  pieces  are  also  woven  there. 

Yuruks.  — Suggestive  of  gipsies,  yet  widely  unlike  them,  are 
the  tribes  of  Turkoman  descent  known  as  Yuruks.  This  term 
means  “Wanderers;”  and  they  are  well  named,  since  throughout  the 
western  part  of  Asia  Minor  they  follow  their  sheep,  cattle,  and 
camels  from  the  rich  pastures  among  the  mountain  tops  of  the  in- 
terior, where  they  live  in  summer,  to  the  fertile,  sunny  plains  border- 
ing the  seashore  in  winter.  Even  near  Smyrna  and  the  slopes  of 
Mt.  Olympus  may  be  seen  their  black  goat’s-hair  tents,  where  the 
unexpected  guest  is  always  welcome. 

In  their  rugs  is  the  reflection  of  their  untrammelled  lives,  un- 
affected by  the  refinements  of  cities;  and  as  their  lives  are  differ- 
ent from  those  of  all  other  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor,  so  are  these 
rugs  entirely  distinct,  resembling  more  than  anything  else  the  work 
of  the  wild  Kazaks  of  the  Caucasus.  In  them  will  be  recognised 
the  same  long  nap,  the  same  massing  of  colour,  the  same  profu- 
sion of  latch-hooks,  and  other  simple  designs.  The  colours,  however, 
are  less  brilliant,  bright  reds  and  yellows  being  more  sparingly 
used ; but  on  the  other  hand  the  depth  of  floccy  nap  gives  a subdued 
richness  to  the  dark  metallic  madder,  blue,  green,  and  brown,  such 
as  is  rarely  seen  in  any  Kazak.  The  patterns  show  the  usual  diver- 
sity of  nomadic  rugs.  The  fields  may  contain  crude,  unrelated  figures, 
or  diagonal  stripes  on  which  are  small  geometric  designs.  Again 
from  the  Kurdish  tribes  to  the  east  may  be  adopted  the  pear  de- 
signs as  well  as  floral  forms,  but  the  drawing  is  always  far  from 
realistic. 

Most  of  the  modern  rugs  have  fine  wool  coloured  with  vegetable 
dyes,  and  stout  warp  and  weft  woven  to  give  flexibility;  but  their 
patterns  show  a want  of  all  artistic  feeling.  Now  and  then,  however, 
comes  to  light  a piece  that  has  stood  the  wear  of  more  than  a century, 
showing  the  touch  of  a higher  craftsmanship,  and  with  colours 
softened  by  each  succeeding  year. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours , principally  brown,  red,  and  blue, 
with  minor  quantities  of  yellow,  green,  and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  seven;  perpendicularly,  six  to  nine. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  not  closely  pressed  down,  yet  the  warp  does 
not  show  at  back.  Warp,  wool  or  goat’s  hair;  each  of  the  two  threads 


192 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


encircled  by  a half  knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool 
of  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  two,  three,  or  four 
times  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  varying  in  the  same  rug. 
Pile,  wool,  clipped  long.  Border,  from  four  to  six  stripes,  occasionally 
with  an  outer  edging.  Sides,  generally  a heavy  double  overcasting, 
but  occasionally  a double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords.  Lower  end, 
a coloured  web  through  which  generally  runs  a parti-coloured  cord, 
and  warp  loops;  or  the  warp  threads  may  be  knotted  and  hang  loose. 
Upper  end,  a coloured  web  through  which  generally  runs  a parti- 
coloured cord,  a braided  selvage,  and  a warp  fringe;  or  the  warp 
ends  may  be  braided  together  at  short  intervals.  Texture,  loose. 
Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  four  to 
nine  feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

ASIA  MINOR  BORDER  STRIPES 

Regarded  as  a whole,  the  borders  of  Asia  Minor  rugs  show  but 
slight  relationship  to  either  the  geometric  patterns  of  the  Caucasian, 
or  the  floral  patterns  of  the  Persian;  for  as  a rule  the  geometric 
features  either  are  subordinate  or  suggest  an  origin  by  degradation 
from  floral  designs,  and  the  floral  features  generally  are  represented 
by  an  orderly  arrangement  of  disjunct  forms  rather  than  by  contin- 
uous vines  with  pendent  flowers.  Yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  some 
were  copied  by  Caucasian  weavers,  and  that  many  were  derived 
from  Persian  patterns.  They  are  frequently,  however,  more  artistic 
than  the  former,  more  interesting  than  the  latter,  and  rival  both  in 
beautiful  colouring  and  delicate  drawing. 

Primary  Stripes.  — Several  different  stripes  peculiar  to  Ghiordes 
prayer  rugs  are  illustrated  in  Plate  G,  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5 (opp.  Page 
192).  The  first  of  these  is  probably  the  oldest.  It  is  so  strikingly  sug- 
gestive of  the  Herati  design  of  rosette  and  attendant  leaves  that  there 
can  be  little  doubt  of  its  Persian  origin.  The  seed-like  processes  of 
the  alternate  rosettes  are  noticeable.  The  second,  which  is  found  in 
many  of  the  Ghiordes  rugs,  shows  the  same  pattern  more  con- 
ventionalised, with  the  rosette  resembling  an  open  pod  and  with  the 
leaves  almost  octagonal-shaped.  The  third  is  a still  greater  evolution 
of  the  same  pattern  in  which  leaves  and  rosettes  of  nearly  equal  shape 
and  size  are  placed  at  three  angles  of  a quadrangular  space.  The 
last,  which  is  a very  elaborate  pattern  somewhat  similar  to  the  first, 
is  found  in  a few  old  rugs.  Besides  these,  a number  of  parallel  lines 


' 


* 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


193 


similar  to  those  of  Kulali  rugs  (Plate  G,  Fig.  12)  are  sometimes 
seen  in  the  Ghiordes. 

One  of  the  best  known  Ghiordes  stripes  found  in  odjaliks  and  sed- 
jadehs  is  shown  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  6.  It  is  a broad  stripe  with  wide, 
vine-like  bands  covered  with  rows  of  small  flecks  or  flowers.  Be- 
tween each  flexure  of  the  band  are  designs  probably  symbolic  of 
early  sun  worship. 

In  Plate  G,  Fig.  7,  is  represented  the  most  usual  and  beautiful 
stripe  of  the  Ladik  prayer  rugs.  The  principal  motives  are  Rhodian 
lilies,  and  rosettes  identical  with  Persian  forms,  that  are  probably 
conventionalised  roses.  Another  stripe,  in  which  the  lily  is  re- 
placed by  a conventionalised  vine,  is  shown  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  8. 
Both  these  stripes  are  found  only  in  Ladik  rugs.  Other  stripes 
seen  now  and  then  in  Ladik  and  Melez  sedjadehs  are  illustrated 
in  Plate  G,  Figs.  9,  10,  and  11,  each  of  which  shows  a conven- 
tionalised leaf. 

One  of  the  most  typical  Kulah  stripes  is  seen  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  12. 
It  might  in  fact  be  regarded  as  a number  of  parallel  stripes,  but  as 
will  be  evident  by  observing  a large  series  of  Kulalis  it  serves  the 
function  of  a single  broad  stripe.  Often  the  separate  bands  are  re- 
placed by  a ground  of  uniform  colour  marked  by  parallel  rows  of 
minute  flowers  of  regularly  varying  colour.  Occasionally  this  stripe 
is  copied  by  Ghiordes  weavers. 

In  Plate  G,  Fig.  13,  is  a well-known  stripe  that  appears  both  in 
Kulah  and  Rhodian  rugs.  As  previously  explained,  its  origin  is 
probably  floral,  though  the  drawing  is  geometric.  A formal  stripe 
found  in  Bergamos,  and  consisting  largely  of  diamonds  and  eight- 
pointed  stars,  is  represented  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  14. 

Figs.  15  and  16  of  Plate  G illustrate  the  border  stripes  of  Melez 
rugs.  Each  contains  regularly  spaced  rosettes,  separated  by  conven- 
tionalised leaf  forms.  A much  more  geometric  Melez  border,  in 
which  the  rosettes  are  replaced  by  eight-pointed  stars  and  the  leaves 
by  discs,  is  shown  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  17. 

A geometric  stripe  of  uncertain  origin  that  is  found  in  some 
Koniehs  is  shown  in  Plate  G,  Fig.  18. 

In  Plate  G,  Figs.  19  and  20,  are  represented  two  stripes  character- 
istic of  Kir-Shehrs.  The  former  is  a dainty  pattern  consisting  of  a 
row  of  bushes  separated  by  the  lily  design.  It  is  occasionally  found 
in  the  Melez  also. 

A typical  Mud  jar  stripe  in  which  the  geometric  patterns  are  sub- 


194  ORIENTAL  RUGS 

divided  into  small  and  richly  coloured  mosaic  work  is  seen  in  Plate 
G,  Fig.  21. 

In  Plate  G,  Fig.  22,  is  illustrated  a Yuruk  border  stripe  such  as 
is  frequently  seen  in  modern  pieces. 

Secondary  and  Tertiary  Stripes. — In  Plate  H,  Figs.  1 and  2 (opp. 
Page  194),  are  illustrated  two  secondary  stripes  frequently  seen  in 
Ghiordes  and  Kulah  rugs.  The  first  is  most  suggestive  of  a run- 
ning vine,  and  the  second  has  doubtless  been  derived  from  it. 

A more  ornate  pattern,  which  generally  accompanies  the  broad 
band  of  perpendicular  lines  peculiar  to  Ghiordes  and  Kulah  rugs, 
is  shown  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  3.  The  arrangement  of  three  leaves  in 
angles  of  quadrangular  spaces  suggests  relationship  to  the  primary 
stripe  of  Plate  G,  Fig.  3 (opp.  Page  192). 

Two  other  secondary  stripes  found  in  Ghiordes  rugs  are  seen  in 
Plate  H,  Figs.  4 and  5.  The  former,  which  is  also  found  in  Kulahs 
is  a vine  and  flower  subject  to  many  modifications. 

A tertiary  stripe  containing  a ribbon-like  vine  is  very  usual  in 
Ghiordes  and  Kulah  pieces.  One  of  these,  which  is  very  graceful,  is 
shown  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  6. 

Another  angular  vine  with  pendent  flower,  that  appears  as  a 
secondary  stripe  of  a large  number  of  Ladik  prayer  rugs,  is  illus- 
trated in  Plate  H,  Fig.  7.  This  resembles  a few  Persian  stripes, 
but  the  drawing  of  the  pendent  leaf  is  characteristic  of  Asia 
Minor. 

Figs.  8 and  9 of  Plate  H represent  two  tertiary  stripes  often  seen 
in  Ladiks  and  Kulahs.  They  illustrate  the  evolution  of  patterns; 
for  in  the  same  stripe  of  a rug  will  sometimes  be  seen  the  first  of 
these  and  the  simple  ribbon  pattern  of  Plate  F,  Fig.  18  (opp.  Page 
158),  and  also  in  the  same  stripe  of  another  rug  will  sometimes  be 
seen  the  second  of  these  and  a continuous  row  of  “//”  designs, 
as  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  2. 

The  most  typical  of  all  Kulah  secondary  stripes,  though  it  is 
also  seen  in  Rhodian  rugs  and  occasionally  in  an  old  Ghiordes,  is 
illustrated  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  10.  A somewhat  similar  stripe  is  shown 
in  Plate  H,  Fig.  11.  The  design  looks  like  a Chinese  motive,  but 
that  it  is  evolved  from  a vine  will  be  seen  by  comparing  these  stripes 
with  those  in  Figs.  4 and  12.  All  of  them  are  Asia  Minor  border 
stripes. 

In  Figs.  13  and  14  of  Plate  H are  illustrated  the  swastika  and 


12 


WPS 

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20 


Plate  H.  Secondarv  and  Tertiary 


Border-Stripes  of  Asia  Minor  Rugs 


ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


195 


S stripe,  which  are  seen  now  and  then  in  Asia  Minor  rugs,  such 
as  Kulahs,  and  also  in  Caucasian  rugs. 

One  of  the  most  typical  of  Melez  secondary  stripes,  representing 
processes  like  cogs  projecting  in  a row  from  alternating  sides  of  the 
stripe,  is  shown  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  15.  The  stripes  shown  in  Figs.  1G 
and  17  of  Plate  H,  representing  a row  of  small  rosettes  and  a row 
of  octagonal  discs,  are  also  occasionally  seen  in  Melez  rugs. 

The  very  angular  vine  shown  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  18,  is  sometimes 
seen  in  Koniehs. 

A very  unusual  secondary  stripe  (Plate  H,  Fig  19),  found  in 
a few  Anatolians,  represents  a fret  pattern,  which  was  probably 
copied'from  some  monument. 

The  chain  pattern  (Plate  H,  Fig.  20)  is  occasionally  seen  as  a 
tertiary  stripe  in  the  Ghiordes.  It  appeared  in  Asia  Minor  rugs 
of  several  centuries  ago,  and  has  been  copied  by  the  weavers  of  Cau- 
casia. Sometimes  the  lines  are  angular,  and  again  the  S’s  are  sepa- 
rated by  small  round  or  square  dots. 


TECHNICALITIES  IN  THE  WEAVE  OF  ASIA  MINOR  RUGS 


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I ] indicates  the  less  frequent  condition. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


SIDE  from  the  facts  that  the  Caucasus  is 
rugged,  that  during  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
ruled  by  the  illustrious  Tamara,  and  that 
till  recently  the  physical  charms  of  its  women 
made  them  favourites  in  the  slave  markets 
of  Constantinople,  the  character  and  history 
of  that  country  are  to-day  almost  as  unknown 
to  the  average  reader  as  they  were  when  the 
bards  of  ancient  Greece  bound  Prometheus  to  its  rocks  and  hung  the 
Golden  Fleece  from  its  oaken  boughs.  Yet  it  is  a country  of  wonder- 
ful interest.  Above  its  gorges,  rivalling  those  of  the  Himalayas, 
rise  mountains  higher  than  the  Alps.  On  the  southwestern  slope 
are  combined  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  tropical  lowlands  with 
virgin  forests  of  fir  and  pine,  and  in  meadows  and  beside  shaded 
brooks  grow  flowers  of  strange  beauty.  Beneath  the  ground  is  un- 
developed wealth  of  ores  and  mineral  oil.  The  river  Phasis  is  the 
natural  home  of  the  pheasant;  the  crags  are  the  resorts  of  ibex; 
and  in  secluded  glens  sharing  solitude  with  bear,  wolf,  and  boar 
are  hidden  the  wild  aurochs. 

Moreover,  the  philologist,  ethnologist,  and  historian  can  here 
follow  his  favourite  pursuit  with  as  much  zest  as  the  Alpine  climber, 
botanist,  mineralogist,  and  sportsman;  for  within  the  confines  of 
this  region  are  spoken  some  seventy  languages  by  as  many  distinct 
clans,  each  of  remote  origin.  Some  are  the  descendants  of  the  early 
dwellers;  some  are  the  Aryan  stock  that  found  its  way  to  Europe 
before  the  beginning  of  history;  still  others  are  but  the  offspring 
of  the  flotsam  and  jetsam  which  recurring  waves  of  Asiatic  con- 
querors, surging  westward  in  ancient  times,  left  stranded  here. 
Nevertheless,  for  so  many  generations  have  the  present  inhabitants 
remained  among  their  mountain  strongholds,  unabsorbed  and  unas- 
similating, that  they  have  been  regarded  as  a type  sufficiently  pure 
and  characteristic  to  give  its  name  to  the  great  Caucasian  race. 


198 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Though  enjoying  greater  isolation  than  surrounding  countries, 
the  Caucasus  at  different  times  and  in  different  ways  has  felt  their 
influences.  During  the  Augustan  age  of  Tamara’s  rule  she  attracted 
by  her  brilliancy,  taste,  and  industry  foreign  courtiers  and  artisans. 
Hardly  was  she  dead  before  Genghis  Khan’s  horde  of  conquering 
Mongols  poured  over  the  land;  and  rival  suitors,  enraptured  by  her 
daughter’s  beauty,  pressed  their  claims  by  invading  it  with  their 
Mohammedan  armies.  For  long  succeeding  years  Persia  struggled 
with  Turkey  for  the  mastery  of  the  country,  and  was  about  to  take 
it  when  Russia  grasped  the  prize,  but  only  after  Shamyl  with  a few 
brave  thousands  had  defeated  vast  armies. 

Each  of  these  foreign  guests  or  foes  left  some  impression  on  the 
native  art;  so  that  Caucasian  rugs  show  traces  of  Turkoman,  Turk- 
ish, and  Persian  influences.  It  is  rarely,  excepting  in  a few  small 
geometric  figures,  that  there  is  any  evidence  of  the  Turkoman  influ- 
ence; but  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  border  stripes  and  field  designs 
adopted  from  the  Turkish  rugs.  Some  of  these  stripes  represent  both 
geometric  and  floral  patterns,  either  copied  directly  or  derived  with 
slight  modifications  from  rugs  woven  three  or  four  centuries  ago  in 
Asia  Minor  or  Armenia.  The  Persian  influence  is  apparent  only  in 
the  floral  forms.  It  doubtless  inspired  the  stripe  of  dainty  carnations 
so  common  in  a large  number  of  Caucasian  pieces,  the  pear  design 
inseparable  from  Baku  rugs,  as  well  as  many  other  figures  that  first 
appeared  in  the  rugs  of  Persia. 

Nevertheless,  these  rugs  have  their  own  distinct  characteristics, 
which  have  a boldness  and  virility  that  are  to  be  attributed  in  a meas- 
ure to  grand  and  rugged  scenery  as  well  as  to  centuries  of  struggle 
for  independence,  since  in  art  the  influence  of  environment  is  most 
apparent.  They  lack  something  of  the  sobriety,  artistic  drawing, 
and  delicate  colouring  of  those  woven  in  vast  deserts,  amid  the 
monuments  of  fallen  empires,  and  in  the  gardens  of  the  East;  they 
contain  on  the  other  hand,  both  in  line  and  colour,  the  forceful  ex- 
pression of  untrammelled  thought.  The  patterns  are  largely  geo- 
metric; the  tones  of  colour,  in  which  clear  red,  blue,  green,  and  yellow 
predominate,  are  strong.  On  the  whole,  they  possess  an  individu- 
ality of  character  that  is  not  surpassed  by  the  rugs  of  any  other 
group. 

Daghestans.  — In  no  part  of  Caucasia  have  better  rugs  been 
woven  than  in  Daghestan,  “the  mountain  country.”  Nor  is  it  sur- 


/ LAKE  VAN f 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


199 


prising  that  this  province  should  produce  distinctive  types,  when 
it  is  considered  that  it  has  a length  of  over  two  hundred  miles; 
that  its  topography  is  diversified  by  glaciated  mountains,  barren 
steppes,  and  fertile  valleys;  and  that  it  is  occupied  by  numerous 
clans,  many  of  whom  differ  in  origin  as  well  as  religion.  Some  of  the 
rugs  come  from  the  city  of  Derbend  on  the  Caspian  Sea;  some  come 
from  Kuba  in  the  southeastern  corner;  others,  called  Kabistans,  are 
produced  in  the  country  about  Kuba;  a few  are  made  by  the  Les- 
ghians  who  live  among  the  lofty  mountains;  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  province  are  woven  pieces  which  formerly  were  sent  in  large 
numbers  to  Europe  and  America,  where  they  soon  became  known 
as  Daghestans. 

Though  their  resemblance  to  the  Kabistans  is  so  great  that  it 
is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them,  the  rugs  which  acquired 
the  trade  name  of  Daghestans  are  different  from  almost  all  other 
Caucasian  pieces.  This  is  largely  because  the  province  is  bounded 
on  three  sides  by  a sea  and  a nearly  impassable  mountain  range, 
which  render  communication  with  surrounding  territory  difficult  , and 
create  a natural  isolation,  where  in  the  course  of  many  generations 
a distinct  type  was  developed.  Moreover,  these  same  physical  con- 
ditions have  impeded  both  the  introduction  of  aniline  dyes,  so  that 
even  among  niodern  pieces  spurious  colours  are  not  frequently  seen; 
and  also  the  adoption  of  new  designs,  so  that  the  patterns  of  two  or 
three  centuries  ago  are  still  largely  used. 

It  is  among  the  oldest  rugs  of  the  Daghestan  weave  that  are 
found  many  of  the  best  examples  of  Caucasian  textile  art.  The  dark, 
rich  reds  and  blues  of  the  fields,  which  are  brightened  by  the  ivory, 
light  blue,  green,  and  yellow  of  the  small  designs,  resemble  the 
fine  colouring  of  choice  Persian  carpets.  But  the  patterns  are  totally 
dissimilar;  for  it  is  only  in  a few  rare  old  pieces,  in  which  are  copied 
some  designs  such  as  the  lotus,  or  the  running  vine  with  leaf 
and  bud,  that  there  is  any  likeness  to  the  realism  of  Persian  floral 
ornamentation . 

The  drawing,  however,  is  never  crude,  and  on  account  of  the 
short  nap  and  strongly  contrasting  colours  always  appears  with 
clear  definition.  With  the  exception  of  conventionalised  pears,  the 
three-leaf  sprig,  which  is  commonly  seen  in  the  field,  and  the 
narrow  border  stripes  of  carnations,  almost  all  of  the  figures  are 
geometric;  and  are  so  carefully  drawn,  so  closely  clustered,  that 
they  represent  an  appearance  frequently  compared  to  mosaic  work. 


200 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Even  when  the  patterns  represent  large  medallions  or  stars,  they 
contain  smaller  concentric  forms,  or  are  divided  and  redivided  into 
smaller  stars,  diamonds,  or  tessellated  figures,  so  that  the  effect  is 
the  same.  In  some  form  or  other  the  latch-hook  is  seen  in  almost 
all  these  pieces.  Of  small  designs,  the  octagonal  disc  is  almost  in- 
variably found;  and  animals,  human  beings,  and  the  pear  are  not 
infrequently  seen. 

As  the  population  of  the  province  is  largely  Mohammedan, 
namazliks  as  well  as  sedjadehs  are  made;  but  with  the  exception  of 
the  unobtrusive  arch  of  the  namazlik,  which  is  represented  in  Plate 
C,  Fig.  9 (Page  61),  there  is  little  difference  between  them.  There 
is  never  any  panel  as  in  Asia  Minor  rugs;  nor  is  there  a noticeable 
spandrel,  since  the  space  above  the  arch  contains  designs  similar  to 
those  on  the  rest  of  the  field. 

As  a rule,  the  borders  consist  of  three  or  four  stripes  separated 
by  coloured  lines.  Only  in  the  secondary  stripes  are  any  floral  forms 
employed;  and  these,  with  the  exception  of  the  carnation  design, 
are  rare.  The  reciprocal  trefoil  is  most  characteristic  as  an  outer 
stripe;  the  serrated  line  is  also  employed;  and  it  is  not  unusual  to 
find  next  to  the  field  a broad  stripe  of  diagonal  barber-pole  bars, 
on  which  are  small  dotted  lines. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  ivory, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green  and  yellow.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  fifteen. 
A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  and  occasion- 
ally longer.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that 
their  alignment  is  even  and  the  warp  shows  at  back.  Warp,  wool; 
each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at 
the  back;  occasionally  in  old  pieces  one  thread  is  slightly  depressed 
below  the  other.  Weft,  wool  of  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  clipped 
short.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  a selvage  of  two,  three,  or 
four  cords,  or  occasionally  a weft-overcasting.  Both  ends,  a web, 
one  row  of  knots  or  more,  and  loose  warp  fringe.  Occasionally 
there  is  also  a narrow  braided  selvage.  Texture,  moderately  firm. 
Weave  at  back  is  of  fine  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  ten  feet.  Usual 
width,  one  half  to  two  thirds  length. 

Kabistans.  — Within  recent  years  most  of  the  rugs  shipped  from 
the  southern  part  of  Daghestan  have  become  known  in  Western 


Plate  44.  Baku  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


201 


markets  as  Kabistans,  though  the  distinction  between  them  and  the 
type  that  takes  the  name  of  the  province  is  so  slight  that  it  is  deter- 
minable only  by  the  strictest  analysis.  In  fact,  Kabistans  are  merely 
a variety  of  Daghestans.  Both  have  short  nap  and  occasionally 
adopt  the  same  colour  scheme  and  patterns,  so  that  many  of  each 
class  are  indistinguishable  from  one  another. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  a few  interesting  points  of  differ- 
ence between  the  best  types,  which  are  largely  attributable  to  geo- 
graphic environment.  As  the  only  easy  access  to  this  province  from 
the  south  is  by  the  shore  of  the  Caspian,  where  the  great  mountain 
wall  that  forms  an  almost  impassable  barrier  between  Northern  and 
Southern  Caucasia  descends  to  the  plain,  the  district  adjacent  to 
this  entrance  on  the  line  of  travel  would  naturally  feel  and  show  a 
foreign  influence,  while  the  remote  and  more  inaccessible  parts  of 
the  province  would  be  unaffected.  Accordingly,  the  designs  of  Ka- 
bistans are  more  varied,  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  in  them  evi- 
dences of  Persian  influence  not  so  apparent  in  the  Daghestans. 
In  some,  for  instance,  are  pear  designs,  like  those  occasionally  seen 
in  Shiraz  pieces;  and  the  rich  tones,  that  are  usually  more  subdued 
than  those  of  the  Daghestans,  suggest  the  finest  dyes  of  the  Fer- 
aghans.  There  is  also  a slight  difference  in  weave.  Both  display 
the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  each  knot  with  equal  promi- 
nence at  the  back;  but  in  the  Daghestans  the  alignment  of  the  two 
halves  of  the  knot,  as  they  appear  at  the  back,  is  more  regular; 
while  in  the  Kabistans  one  extends  beyond  the  other  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  rug,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Shirvans  woven 
in  the  adjoining  country  to  the  south.  Frequently  the  weft  of  Kabis- 
tans is  of  cotton;  and  the  filling  is  not  as  wide  as  that  of  Daghestans, 
which  is  of  wool.  Moreover,  the  Kabistans  may  be  either  overcast 
or  have  a selvage  at  the  sides,  but  the  Daghestans  have  almost  al- 
ways a narrow  selvage.  Among  the  modern  pieces  there  is  a ten- 
dency for  both  classes  to  follow  the  side  finish  of  the  Shirvans. 

A well-known  type  of  old  Kabistans,  that  is  also  sometimes 
repeated  in  Daghestans,  has  a dark  blue  field  on  which  are  spaced 
in  regular  order  white  bracket-like  designs,  in  which  the  perpendic- 
ular arms  are  usually  connected  (Plate  O,  Figs.  18-a  and  18-b,  Page 
291).  Their  origin  is  unknown;  but  when  their  shape  and  their 
position  in  reference  to  the  rosettes  or  effulgent  stars  that  are  placed 
near  them  are  considered,  the  thought  is  at  once  suggested  that  in 
them  is  reproduced  after  a long  process  of  slow  change  a conven- 


202 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


tionalised  form  of  the  Herati  design.  Other  small  harmonious  de- 
signs are  properly  spaced  throughout  the  fields,  and  in  the  main 
stripe  of  the  border,  on  a cream-coloured  ground,  is  frequently  seen 
the  beautiful  pattern  of  Cufic  origin  represented  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  19 
(opp.  Page  228).  Old  pieces  of  this  pattern,  which  are  now  growing 
rare,  represent  in  weave,  colour,  and  design  the  masterpieces  of  Cau- 
casian textile  art. 

Another  pattern  consists  of  diagonal  stripes  with  small  geometric 
figures,  or  of  small  floral  forms  arranged  in  rows,  so  that  those  of 
similar  colour  fall  in  diagonal  lines.  Again,  the  entire  field  may  be 
covered  with  rectangular  pears  like  those  of  Baku  rugs.  Oblong 
odjaliks  are  often  seen  with  fields  of  dark  colour,  at  each  end  of  which 
are  large  geometric  figures  symmetrically  balanced  with  reference 
to  the  centre.  But  they  are  so  fringed  with  latch-hooks  and  so  sub- 
divided into  smaller  devices,  which  are  accentuated  by  the  shortness 
of  the  nap,  that  they  have  the  effect  of  an  assemblage  of  smaller 
designs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  also  some  red, 
ivory,  green,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizon- 
tally seven  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  sixteen.  A half 
knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  and  occasionally  longer. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down;  their  alignment 
is  less  even  than  in  Daghestans,  yet  the  warp  may  be  seen  at  back. 
Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally 
prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool  or  cotton,  of  medium  diameter. 
A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots 
and  occasionally  three  times.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length.  Border, 
three  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  generally  a weft-overcasting,  or  a two- 
cord  weft  selvage;  occasionally  a double  overcasting  or  selvage. 
Lower  end,  a narrow  web,  not  infrequently  a fine  braided  selvage  and 
warp  loops.  Upper  end,  a narrow  web,  occasionally  a fine  braided 
selvage  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave  at  back 
is  of  medium  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  twelve  feet.  Usual 
width,  one  half  to  three  quarters  length. 

Kubas.  — Not  far  from  the  southeast  corner  of  the  province  of 
Daghestan,  in  a plain  watered  by  streams  that  debouch  from  the 
Caucasus,  is  the  small  town  of  Kuba.  It  is  on  the  site  of  an  old 
Persian  fort,  about  which  in  the  course  of  time  sprang  up  a town 
sufficiently  important  to  be  the  residence  of  a Khan.  For  a long 


Plate  45.  Shirvan  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


203 


period  previous  to  the  treaty  of  Gulistan,  in  1813,  the  influence  of 
the  Persians  had  been  predominant  in  this  part  of  the  country; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  oldest  Kuba  rugs  now 
existing  are  the  work  of  their  weavers.  Many,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  few  foreign  characteristics  either  of  weave  or  design,  and  show 
a relationship  to  the  work  of  the  Shemakha  tribes,  who  inhabit 
an  adjoining  district  in  Shirvan. 

In  some  of  this  class  the  floral  form  receives  more  elaborate 
treatment  than  in  any  other  Caucasian  rug.  One  of  the  patterns  of 
undoubted  Iranian  inspiration  represents  a large  oval  panel  or  medal- 
lion, with  graceful  outlines  resting  on  a field  of  deep  blue  and  sable 
brown,  streaked  with  waving  lines  of  gold.  Within  the  medallion 
is  a lavish  display  of  large  flowers  en  masse,  and  not  detached  from 
one  another  or  arranged  in  set  form,  as  is  the  case  with  most  floral 
patterns.  In  each  corner  is  a rose  with  spreading  petals  that  equals 
the  largest  seen  in  nature,  and  with  colour  that  suggests  the  beauty 
of  a Duchess  or  Marechal  Niel.  Surrounding  all  is  a narrow  dainty 
border  of  some  well-known  Persian  vine.  The  most  recent  copies 
of  this  pattern,  that  has  been  followed  for  at  least  a century  and 
a half,  are  so  crude  as  to  resemble  but  slightly  the  oldest,  which  sug- 
gest the  work  of  some  early  Kirman  weaver  and  are  unsurpassed 
in  beauty  and  artistic  elegance  by  any  other  Caucasian  rug. 

Other  patterns  are  more  distinctly  representative  of  the  native 
art.  The  field  of  some  is  occupied  by  large,  irregular,  octagonal- 
shaped figures  defined  by  serrated  edges  and  subdivided  by  mosaic 
work,  at  the  centre  of  which  is  some  well-known  design.  One  of  the 
most  pleasing  patterns  consists  of  a field  on  which  with  mathematical 
precision  are  placed  large  effulgent  stars.  At  their  centre  is  often 
a much  smaller  star  enclosed  by  a diamond  from  which  extend 
broad  rays  directed  towards  the  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 
When  softened  by  time  the  different  shades,  such  as  light  blue, 
ivory,  and  deep  red  of  the  enveloping  rays,  contrasted  with  other 
shades  at  the  centre  and  with  a dark  blue  of  the  ground,  are  exceed- 
ingly beautiful. 

The  Kubas  and  Shemakhas  have  similar  tones  of  colour,  con- 
sisting principally  of  blues,  reds,  sable  brown,  and  yellow,  to  which 
the  soft,  velvety  character  of  the  wool  of  the  best  examples  gives  a 
quality  of  richness  that  is  distinctive.  The  finish  of  their  sides  and 
ends,  which  is  usually  similar  to  that  of  the  Soumaks,  is  also  iden- 
tical, so  that  they  are  frequently  mistaken  for  one  another,  and  can 


204 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


only  be  distinguished  by  a difference  of  pattern  and  a slight  differ- 
ence of  weave. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  brown, 
occasionally  some  green.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizon- 
tally six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  thirteen.  The  rows  of 
knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  almost  hidden  at  back. 
Warp,  fine  wool;  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  are  equally 
prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool  of  fine  or  medium  diameter.  A 
thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots. 
Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  one  to  three  stripes.  Sides,  a 
blue  double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords.  Both  ends,  a narrow  blue 
web  of  “herring-bone”  weave,  a knotted  selvage  or  several  rows  of 
knots,  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture,  slightly  loose.  Weave  at 
back  is  of  moderately  fine  grain.  Usual  length,  four  to  nine  feet. 
Usual  width,  one  half  to  two  thirds  length. 

Derbends.  — Near  the  great  walls  built  by  Alexander  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  where  mountains  rise  abruptly  so  as  to  leave  only  a 
narrow  pass,  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Caucasia.  It  was  known 
by  the  Romans  as  Albana,  and  was  renamed  by  the  Persians  of  the 
VI  Century  “Derbend,”  which  in  their  language  signifies  a gate- 
way. No  other  city  of  Caucasia  has  been  visited  by  more  foreign 
foes.  Tartar  tribes  passed  that  way  when  entering  Europe;  Mon- 
golians captured  it  as  late  as  the  XIII  Century;  Russians  and  Per- 
sians in  turn  held  it.  Moreover,  the  sea  has  offered  an  easy  approach 
to  the  Turkoman  tribes  dwelling  to  the  east.  It  is  therefore  some- 
what surprising  that  there  is  so  little  evidence  of  artistic  foreign 
influence  in  the  weavings;  but  this  is  due,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  that 
pieces  with  an  authentic  age  of  over  two  centuries  no  longer  exist, 
and  such  old  rugs  as  remain  are  very  scarce;  whilst  the  modern  pieces 
are  derived  largely  from  the  mountainous  districts  that  find  a market 
in  the  city. 

Occasionally,  however,  there  comes  to  light  a very  old  piece 
that  reaches  the  standard  of  the  finest  Kabistan.  The  field  of  such 
a one  may  be  filled  with  elaborately  drawn  pears  like  those  seen  in 
many  of  the  Niriz  rugs.  Again,  it  may  be  covered  with  a checkered 
or  lattice-work  pattern  that  contains  within  the  diamonds  geometric 
or  semi-floral  mosaic  designs.  Surrounding  this  field  are  three  or 
four  stripes,  of  which  the  outer  has  a reciprocal  pattern.  The  nap 
is  of  fine  wool  of  moderate  length.  At  the  back  of  these  older  rugs 


! I, , ’ 

Sjtoj, 


- V' 

5®£ft  ■§«« 


Plate  46.  Soumak  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


205 


is  sometimes  displayed  finely  spun  reddish  dyed  threads  of  woollen 
weft  pressed  closely  together  between  lines  of  knots  carefully  tied 
to  brownish  threads  of  woollen  warp;  but  not  infrequently  cotton 
is  used  for  both  warp  and  weft.  Such  designs  and  technique  suggest 
the  rugs  woven  much  farther  to  the  south. 

In  contrast  with  these  beautiful  but  rare  pieces,  the  modern 
products  are  sad  commentaries  on  the  retrogression  in  weaving; 
for  those  that  are  ordinarily  found  in  the  market  are  like  poor  imi- 
tations of  inferior  Daghestans.  They  are  of  slightly  larger  size, 
and  have  longer  nap,  looser  weave,  and  cruder  colours.  Moreover, 
they  show  evidences  of  Turkoman  influences;  for  not  infrequently 
the  warp  is  of  brown  goat’s  hair,  and  at  each  end  is  a reddish  brown 
web  like  what  may  be  seen  in  the  rugs  of  Yomud  tribes  living  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian.  Still  other  nomadic  characters,  re- 
sembling the  workmanship  of  Kazak  tribes,  appear  in  the  large  star- 
like  or  diamond-shaped  figures  which,  fringed  with  latch-hooks  and 
coloured  with  bright  tones  of  red,  blue,  or  green,  are  often  placed 
in  simple  array  on  a field  of  strongly  contrasting  colour.  There  is 
nothing,  however,  offensive  in  the  colour  scheme,  excepting  when 
aniline  dyes  are  used.  With  wear  the  nap  of  many  of  them  acquires 
the  soft  and  pleasing  effect  of  Beluchistans.  Furthermore,  they  are 
both  flexible  and  durable,  though  entirely  lacking  in  artistic  qualities. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  ivory, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green,  yellow,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  six  to  twelve. 
Each  half  knot  is  about  as  long  as  wide,  and  occasionally  longer. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  generally  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp 
is  concealed  at  back.  Warp,  generally  wool,  occasionally  cotton. 
The  separate  threads  are  not  strung  closely  together.  Each  of  the 
two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back. 
Weft,  generally  wool,  but  often  cotton.  In  some  pieces  a thread 
of  weft  of  medium  diameter  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows 
of  knots;  not  infrequently  it  crosses  both  twice  and  three  times 
in  the  same  piece;  rarely  a thread  of  coarse  diameter  crosses  only 
once.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  three  stripes.  Sides, 
a double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords,  or  occasionally  a double 
overcasting.  Both  ends  have  a web,  frequently  a knotted  selvage, 
and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  loose.  Weave  at  back  is 
of  medium  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  seven  feet.  Usual  width, 
one  half  to  two  thirds  length. 


206 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Lesghians.  — On  the  northern  flank  of  the  high  mountain 
ranges  that  extend  eastward  from  Kazbek  into  the  province  of 
Daghestan,  live  the  numerous  tribes  classed  as  Lesghians.  Their 
different  dialects  and  languages  would  indicate  unrelated  origins; 
but  their  common  religion,  mode  of  life,  and  struggle  for  liberty 
have  established  between  all  of  them  strong  bonds  of  sympathy. 
They  are  nominally  Christians,  but  essentially  Mohammedans. 
Most  of  them  live  in  almost  inaccessible  spots,  beneath  the  snow 
covered,  glaciated  ridges,  and  beside  fierce  flowing  torrents,  where 
on  occasions  they  have  converted  their  homes  into  almost  impreg- 
nable fortresses.  These  are  the  people  who  united  with  the  Cir- 
cassians in  the  long-continued  struggle  against  the  Russian  Empire, 
and  followed  Shamyl  to  repeated  victory  among  the  mountain 
defiles. 

It  might  naturally  be  expected  that  the  rugs  of  such  people  would 
partake  of  a character  totally  distinct  from  those  woven  in  the  sunny 
atmosphere  of  Kirman,  amid  the  sacred  influences  of  Meshed,  or 
among  the  peaceful  hills  of  Ghiordes.  Such,  in  fact,  is  the  case, 
since  both  patterns  and  colouring  display  extreme  simplicity,  as 
well  as  strength  and  beauty.  Large  numbers  of  these  rugs  are  of 
moderate  size  and  slightly  oblong;  and  are  flexible  yet  stout.  Both 
warp  and  weft  are  of  fine  brown  wool;  and  as  is  rarely  the  case  with 
any  other  Caucasian  rugs  excepting  the  Shushas,  one  of  the  two 
threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  is  often  almost  doubled  beneath 
the  other.  The  knotted  fringe  of  the  ends  suggests  the  work  of 
tribes  living  further  westward,  but  the  selvage  of  the  sides  shows 
relationship  to  the  Daghestans. 

The  patterns  of  some  of  these  rugs  are  not  unlike  those  of  rugs 
woven  south  of  the  Caucasus;  and  not  infrequently  the  fields  con- 
tain unrelated  designs  such  as  the  lozenge  fringed  with  hooks, 
the  octagonal  disc,  eight-pointed  stars,  and  S forms.  The  borders 
usually  consist  of  two  or  three  stripes,  on  which  is  some  geometric 
pattern.  The  colours  are  few  and  characteristic.  Blue  and  yellow 
are  generally  present,  and  frequently  red  and  brown.  On  the  whole, 
these  pieces  have  an  interesting  individuality  unlike  that  of  any 
other  rugs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  blue,  yellow,  red,  brown,  and  ivory. 
Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  nine;  perpendic- 
ularly, six  to  eleven.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down, 
so  that  the  warp  is  almost  hidden  at  back.  Warp,  brown  wool; 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


207 


one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the 
other  at  back,  or  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft,  wool  of  medium 
diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of 
knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  usually  three  stripes. 
Sides,  an  added  selvage,  which  is  generally  wool  but  occasionally 
cotton,  of  two,  three,  or  four  cords.  Both  ends,  a web,  two  or  three 
rows  of  knots,  and  a warp  fringe.  In  some  pieces  there  is  also  a 
braided  selvage.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse 
grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  eight  feet.  Usual  width,  one  half  to  two 
thirds  length. 

Chichis.  — On  the  lower  slope  of  the  Caucasus,  extending  down 
into  the  valley  of  the  Terek  are  the  homes  of  the  Tchechens,  the 
weavers  of  pieces  so  often  spoken  of  as  Chichis.  Beyond  them  to  the 
north  are  great  stretches  of  Russian  steppes,  and  to  the  south  is 
the  land  of  the  hardy  Lesghians.  Nevertheless,  their  rugs  show  little 
relationship  to  the  work  of  the  latter  or  of  any  other  tribes  to  the 
north  of  the  mountain  chain;  but  resemble  more  closely  the  work  of 
the  Shirvans  in  the  valley  of  the  Kur,  so  that  not  infrequently  they 
are  mistaken  for  them.  Indeed,  their  general  character  is  remote 
from  anything  barbaric,  and  is  more  in  keeping  with  the  pleasing 
effect  of  the  Persian  sense  of  harmony.  All  floral  forms  are  conven- 
tionalised, but  the  geometric  designs  have  a delicacy  of  drawing, 
a refinement  of  detail,  from  which  every  jarring  note  is  eliminated. 

Like  almost  all  weavers,  the  Tchechens’  adopt  different  patterns. 
On  the  field  of  some  of  the  rugs  is  a plentiful  array  of  small  devices 
surrounding  two  or  three  large  geometric  figures;  or  again  the  field 
may  be  covered  with  pear  designs  arranged  in  regular  order;  but 
most  of  the  rugs  now  seen  follow  a common  type.  In  this  the  field 
resembles  a floor  inlaid  with  beautiful  mosaic  work,  formed  of  care- 
fully cut  stones  of  various  hues,  studiously  arranged  in  the  form  of 
small  diamonds,  eight-pointed  stars,  or  rosettes.  Not  infrequently 
the  rosettes  are  outlined  by  a fret  device  surrounding  a central 
star.  They  are  invariably  arranged  in  lines  parallel  to  the  ends  of 
the  rugs,  and  this  horizontal  effect  is  sometimes  accentuated  by  in- 
serting between  each  row  narrow  bands  composed  of  convention- 
alised leaves.  The  colours  of  these  small  designs  are  generally  ivory, 
light  blue,  pale  yellow,  or  red;  and  appear  more  pronounced  by 
contrast  with  the  underlying  ground  of  light  blue.  Now  and  then  the 
nomadic  instinct  of  the  Tchechen  tribes,  who  lead  their  flocks 


208 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


regularly  from  the  green  pastures  of  the  ridges  to  the  valley  of  the 
Terek,  crops  out  in  unrelated  devices  such  as  combs  and  S forms, 
which  they  weave  in  the  field.  But  they  usually  arrange  them  so  as 
to  harmonise  with  the  main  pattern,  or  else  place  them  near  the 
sides  and  ends,  which  are  almost  invariably  fringed  with  either  a 
serrated  line  or  a row  of  reciprocal  trefoils  projecting  from  the  border 
into  the  field.  This  feature  of  a reciprocal  trefoil  employed  as  a 
fringe  to  the  edges  of  a field  independently  of  the  lines  of  a stripe, 
is  seen  in  very  few  other  classes. 

Often  the  borders,  which  contain  a large  number  of  stripes,  are 
as  wide  as  the  central  field,  with  which  they  harmonise  both  in  colour 
and  design.  There  is  something  chaste  in  the  simplicity  of  the  geo- 
metric figures  of  the  secondary  stripes  and  of  the  conventionalised 
floral  drawing  of  the  main  stripe.  The  latter,  as  represented  in 
the  type  generally  seen  (Plate  I,  Fig.  6,  opp.  Page  226),  consists  of  a 
row  of  about  eight  rosettes,  connected  by  an  angular  vine  drawn 
with  such  breadth  and  regularity  as  to  resemble  a number  of  par- 
allel bars  diagonal  to  the  sides.  In  fact,  this  pattern  would  be  en- 
tirely geometric  were  it  not  for  the  three-cleft  leaves,  which  spring 
from  opposite  sides  of  the  rosettes.  Of  the  secondary  stripes,  the 
outer  almost  invariably  has  the  reciprocal  trefoil,  and  one  has  fre- 
quently a continuous  line  of  eight-pointed  stars.  The  arch  of  the 
prayer  rugs  is  similar  to  that  of  Daghestans. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  ivory,  blue,  and  red, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  ten;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  twelve. 
The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp 
may  be  seen  at  back.  Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled 
by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium 
diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows 
of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  short  or  medium  length.  Border,  three  to 
five  stripes.  Sides,  generally  a double  overcasting,  but  occasionally 
a double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords.  Both  ends,  a web,  one  row  of 
knots  or  more,  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  medium  grain.  Usual  length,  four  and  one  half  to  six 
and  one  half  feet.  Usual  width,  five  eighths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Tcherkess.  — The  narrow  strip  of  fertile  and  beautiful  country 
that  reaches  from  the  Kuban  valley  southward  along  the  shore  of  the 
Black  Sea  for  a distance  of  two  hundred  miles  is  occupied  by  a 


Plate  47.  Kazak  Prayer  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


209 


people  known  to  the  western  world  as  Circassians.  In  their  own  land 
they  are  called  “ Tcher-Kesses,”  a Tartar  term  for  “cutter  of  roads” 
or  highwaymen ; and  they  have  been  in  the  habit  of  speaking  of  them- 
selves as  “Adighies  ” or  Nobles.  In  fact,  there  has  been  no  prouder 
Caucasian  race,  even  though  their  homes  were  often  log  huts  and 
their  daughters  were  sold  in  the  markets  of  Constantinople.  These 
are  the  people,  who  half  a century  ago  finally  yielded  after  a long, 
fierce  struggle  for  independence;  but  a hundred  thousand  families, 
preferring  exile  to  submission  to  the  Czar,  migrated  to  Armenia 
and  Asia  Minor,  where  they  intermarried  with  other  races,  and  are 
rapidly  losing  their  identity. 

Very  few  of  the  Circassian  or  Tcherkess  rugs  have  been  woven 
by  those  who  left  their  country.  The  best  were  made  before  the 
exodus;  and  on  account  of  the  hardships  and  poverty  of  the  people, 
many  that  have  come  to  the  market  within  recent  years  are  greatly 
inferior  to  the  excellent  pieces  of  former  times  and  are  often  mistaken 
for  the  work  of  nomadic  tribes.  Not  only  so,  but  crude  and  foreign 
devices  have  crept  into  some  of  them.  It  is,  therefore,  to  the  older 
pieces  that  we  must  turn  for  a better  understanding  of  this  class. 

Something  of  the  ruggedness  of  lives  spent  in  struggles  with  men 
and  nature  found  expression  in  the  fabrics,  which  show  firmness  of 
texture,  boldness  of  design,  richness  of  colour.  In  fact  they  resemble 
the  Kazaks  so  closely  in  their  long  nap,  and  finish  of  sides  and  ends 
that  they  are  constantly  mistaken  for  them;  yet  they  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  all  classes  by  the  large  amount  of  brownish  red 
or  tawny  colour  of  the  field  and  their  stereotyped  patterns.  These 
usually  consist  of  diamond-shaped  figures  sometimes  called  “ sun- 
bursts,” that  are  often  regarded  as  crude  copies  of  the  Russian  coat 
of  arms;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  have  been  derived  from 
the  medallions  of  some  old  Armenian  rugs  of  the  XIV  and  XV  Cen- 
turies, in  which  also  appear  the  same  tri-cleft  leaves  so  common  in 
both  this  class  and  the  Soumaks.  These  patterns  are  sufficiently 
large  to  occupy  the  full  breadth  of  the  field;  and  there  are  seldom 
less  than  two  and  occasionally  as  many  as  four  or  five  extending 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  strong  contrast  between  the  blue 
and  ivory  of  the  figures  and  the  red  or  tawny  colour  of  the  ground  is 
softened  by  the  depth  of  pile,  which  in  turn  adds  warmth  and  rich- 
ness. The  borders  are  always  of  three  stripes.  The  main  one  almost 
invariably  has  the  tarantula  design  and  is  enclosed  by  guards  with 
the  serrated  sawtooth  design.  Many  of  these  old  pieces  are  ex- 


210 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


cellently  woven  and  have  a dignity  of  pattern  and  wealth  of  har- 
monious colour  rarely  seen  in  nomadic  rugs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red  and  tawny  yellow, 
with  minor  quantities  of  blue  and  white.  Knot,  Ghjordes.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  ten.  A 
half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  or  longer.  The 
rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  does  not  show 
at  back.  Warp,  wool;  generally  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled 
by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back,  occasionally  one  is  depressed 
below  the  other.  Weft,  wool  of  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
usually  crosses  only  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  but  in 
some  pieces  as  many  as  four  or  six  times.  Pile,  wool  of  medium 
length.  Border,  three  stripes.  Sides,  a two-cord  double  selvage. 
Both  ends,  as  a rule  have  a web,  a heavy  braided  selvage,  and  knotted 
warp  fringe;  occasionally  either  web  or  selvage  may  be  omitted. 
Texture,  very  firm.  Weave  at  back  of  medium  grain.  Usual  length, 
five  to  ten  feet.  Usual  width,  one  half  to  two  thirds  length. 

Bakus.  — No  other  rugs  of  Caucasia  have  greater  individuality 
of  colour  and  design  than  the  Bakus.  This,  perhaps,  is  partly  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  district  from  which  they  come  is  dissimilar  to 
any  other.  It  consists  largely  of  the  peninsula  of  scanty  vegetation, 
where  the  great  mountain  chain  extends  to  the  dreary  Caspian, 
leaving  at  its  base  the  narrow  strip  of  land  now  famous  for  its  im- 
mense accumulations  of  mineral  oil.  Hither,  during  the  past,  the 
followers  of  Zoroaster  have  come  from  all  directions  to  worship  in 
the  temple  of  the  Guebres,  where  day  and  night  the  priests  watched 
the  blue  flame  that  rose  perpetually  from  the  ground,  and  once  in 
long  intervals  spread  over  the  waters  like  a sea  of  fire.  This  sacred 
spot  has  been  owned  in  turn  by  Saracens,  Persians,  Turks,  Russians, 
and  the  Princes  of  Shirvan;  so  that  the  influences  of  different 
religions  and  different  races  have  been  felt  here. 

The  most  noticeable  feature  of  many  of  these  rugs  is  their  dull 
colours,  that  give  the  impression  of  being  partly  bleached  or  having 
faded.  There  are  subdued  tones  of  light  blue,  tan,  pale  ocherous 
yellow,  and  black,  as  well  as  light,  medium,  and  dark  brown  colours 
of  natural  wool;  but  in  the  rugs  woven  a century  ago  the  colours 
were  much  richer.  None  of  them  are  used  in  large  masses  excepting 
for  the  underground;  nor  are  there  striking  contrasts,  so  that  the 
effect  is  somewhat  monotonous. 


COLOUR  PLATE  VIII  — SOUMAK  RUG 


The  shape,  colouring,  and  particularly  the  pattern  of  this  interest- 
ing Soumak,  which  was  probably  woven  seventy-jive  or  more  years  ago , 
not  only  are  unusual  but  belong  to  a higher  type  than  is  often  seen. 
Arranged  in  diagonal  rows  on  a field  of  red  are  flowering  bushes,  that 
for  the  most  part  are  blue  and  pink,  but  at  one  end  are  green,  yellow, 
and  brown.  The  accurate  drawing  of  these  bushes  and  of  the  reciprocal 
trefoils  of  the  guard  stripes,  the  care  with  which  the  stitches  have  been 
inserted,  and  the  fine  texture  of  the  wool,  as  is  shown  even  in  the  cream- 
white  warp  at  the  knotted  ends,  alike  proclaim  the  excellent  quality  of 
this  rare  piece . 

Loaned  by  Mr.  Theodore  S.  Hawley 


.k  ••v-.inor  quantities  o’  bl-  e and  vco 
to  incii  horizontally  six  to  nine;  perpe. 

Had  knot,  as  :t  appears  at  back,  is  as  I 
'.*OY\rs  ->f  scots  arc  firmly  prco-,.- ic-c  • sa 

’ 

913ft  ’Ak¥.  ’30a  — \UM  atkAft  ftimOO 

-Sastssoi  i$&\  \o  snsSSocc  skS  \yh»SooVSt»q  hsm  <qfmuok>»  asVI 

,o\jO  'Vio-'.v  i-o  ■\«s\r\yS«&<m  tvoy  kvdo&cm^  sow  .Ao-wVw  ,;fowMo2i  %su- 

•sms  sro'ftc  v,?  «oAS  tas\\>«\  o oS  qwofed  iM  Smmww  sto  \g!Uto  Sets* 
rdk  f-iCw\ivid  .^itmosO'^,  saw  bat  “\o  btajV  » sto  swot  Sooo^osfo  m feaqwynk 
.woSS&y;  ato  b.5ca  a«o  So  Swd  ."iWvq;  ku  • sM  3'®  Vy»ct  Smww  a^S  to\ 

Xoootqtoat  $s\S  \o  bm>  aa^?.«-d  tv,as\i  \o  \wwwotb  aSo’vwooo  aAT  ,-svasotd  bsm 
■md  a«oA  $&S  i Vylav  sWsav  $m>o  p,aqrvia  •Jbfojs^  ?w\S  \o  ?lVo\tti 

~$v  vmo  ads  m sms  $swo&>.  u «o  tSoow  ss\S  \o  awfoai  ?mSv  *»\S  hsto  ksSmst'y 
*,>••  vsSHow'p  kia'lac’xa  a^A  mWbcywj  skslo  .%b«a  bsSScm\  aAi  So  qpow  aSkVo 

,aoak\  tent  us\K 

V^hvoft  .&  atobo  -.iV?,  .tit  \j6 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


211 


An  equally  important  characteristic  is  the  large  number  of  pear 
designs,  which  are  unlike  those  of  any  other  rug.  These  designs 
(Plate  0,  Fig.  6b,  Page  291)  are  so  rectangular  that  they  have  lost  all 
resemblance  to  floral  drawing;  and  to  add  to  their  formality,  each 
is  placed  in  the  field  with  studied  regularity  and  often  surrounded 
by  a delicate  hexagonal  shaped  sub-pattern  giving  a diaper  effect. 
Sometimes,  also,  they  appear  in  the  border  between  an  array  of 
other  designs,  to  which  they  show  no  relation;  but  they  never  con- 
stitute the  sole  feature  of  the  rug  as  they  do  in  Sarabends. 

At  the  centre  of  the  field  is  often  a star-shaped  design  surrounded 
by  a large  diamond  or  other  figure  fringed  with  radiating  lines. 
These  lines  suggest  the  effulgence  of  light;  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  their  origin  lay  in  the  mysticism  of  fire  worship.  In  sedjadehs 
the  corners  are  set  off  by  quadrants  of  octagons,  of  which  the  diag- 
onal sides  are  serrated  and  frequently  fringed  with  radiating  lines 
like  the  central  medallions.  Throughout  both  corners  and  fields  often 
appear  eight-pointed  and  effulgent  stars,  the  three-cleft  leaf,  S de- 
signs, crude  human  and  animal  forms,  and  other  small  geometric 
devices  like  those  seen  in  Daghestans  and  Shirvans.  But  more 
noticeable  than  any  of  these  are  the  realistic  but  mechanically 
drawn  birds,  which  are  represented  in  larger  numbers  and  more 
frequently  than  in  any  other  rugs  woven  within  the  last  century. 

The  borders  contain  from  three  to  five  stripes,  of  which  one  at 
least  is  always  geometric;  and  another,  as  a rule,  has  some  sugges- 
tion of  floral  form.  Often  it  is  only  the  carnation  in  profile;  but  now 
and  then  it  is  a running  vine  with  leaf  or  flower,  adopted  without 
modification  from  Persian  rugs.  This  is  not,  however,  surprising, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Abbas,  Baku 
belonged  to  Persia,  which  for  centuries  had  been  the  home  of  devout 
Parsees,  some  of  whom  undoubtedly  made  pilgrimages  to  the  sacred 
temple. 

These  rugs  can  at  once  be  recognised  by  their  short  nap,  and 
their  characteristic  colours  and  designs.  They  are  always  interest- 
ing on  account  of  their  marked  individuality  and  the  still  unsolved 
symbols  of  Zoroastrian  mysticism  they  may  contain;  but  in  spite 
of  the  careful  delineation  of  the  design  and  the  delicate  mosaic 
effect  of  the  central  medallions,  very  few,  excepting  the  old  pieces, 
are  handsome. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  brown,  tan,  blue, 
yellow,  and  black.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally 


212 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  eleven.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  does  not  show  at  back. 
W arp,  wool ; each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  generally 
equally  prominent  at  back,  occasionally  one  is  depressed  slightly 
below  the  other.  Weft,  usually  cotton,  sometimes  wool,  of  medium 
diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows 
of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  clipped  short.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes. 
Sides,  a weft  overcasting  or  a narrow  weft  selvage.  Both  ends,  a 
web,  one  row  of  knots  or  more,  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  moder- 
ately firm.  W eave  at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length, 
six  to  nine  feet.  Usual  width,  one  half  to  two  thirds  length. 

Shirvans.  — Between  the  rugs  of  Shirvan  and  Daghestan  is  a 
relationship  easily  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  they  are  adjoining 
provinces,  and  that  almost  the  only  approach  to  Daghestan  for  the 
Asiatic  races  among  whom  the  art  of  weaving  reached  its  highest 
development  was  through  Shirvan.  Both  districts,  therefore,  re- 
ceived ideas  from  the  same  sources;  but  since  Shirvan  has  been  at 
times  more  completely  under  the  sway  of  Persia,  it  has  yielded  more 
readily  to  the  influence  of  the  Persian  weavers,  as  is  observable  in 
the  flower  and  foliate  forms  which  are  used  more  frequently  and  are 
drawn  more  realistically  in  its  rugs  than  in  those  of  Daghestan.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  technique  of  weave  as  well  as  finish  of  sides  and 
ends  in  the  Shirvans  lacks  something  of  the  refinement  observable 
in  the  Daghestans. 

The  oldest  existing  Shirvans  are  absorbingly  interesting.  In 
them  the  foliate  forms  are  more  noticeable  than  in  almost  any 
other  Caucasian  rugs,  though  they  may  in  a measure  be  disguised 
by  formal  treatment.  Sometimes  they  appear  as  large  figures  cover- 
ing a great  part  of  the  field  and  acting  as  sub-patterns  for  superim- 
posed smaller  devices;  but  they  are  most  frequently  found  in  the 
borders.  Other  old  pieces  contain  lattice-work  of  hexagonal-shaped 
diaper  patterns,  within  which  may  be  designs  abounding  in  latch- 
hooks  and  figures  strongly  suggestive  of  Chinese  devices.  Such  pat- 
terns, however,  are  unusual;  as  the  fields  of  most  old  Shirvans 
are  covered  with  large  medallions,  stars,  and  diamonds  similar  to 
those  of  Daghestans,  although  the  drawing  inclines  to  greater  sim- 
plicity of  outline  and  detail;  and  they  have  greater  diversity  of 
colour,  as  tones  of  blue,  red,  green,  and  brown  in  a field  of  ivory 
are  not  unusual. 


Plate  48.  Kazak  Rug 


■J 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


213 


The  patterns  of  the  more  modern  rugs  have  become  corrupted  into 
a mere  mechanical  copying  of  conventional  forms  lacking  all  artistic 
spirit.  Some  of  them  resemble  those  found  in  both  Daghestans  and 
Kabistans,  but  generally  the  designs  are  drawn  less  clearly  in  Shir- 
vans.  This  is  partly  because,  as  a rule,  they  are  not  so  closely  woven 
and  the  nap  is  not  quite  so  short.  Now  and  then  the  large  medal- 
lions so  common  to  Soumaks  are  seen ; and  not  infrequently  the  field 
is  covered  with  diagonal  parallel  stripes  on  which  are  small  geometric 
devices. 

There  is,  however,  one  pattern  peculiar  to  Shirvans  that  rarely, 
if  ever,  is  adopted  in  any  other  class.  It  has  somewhat  the  appear- 
ance of  pole  medallions  and  consists  of  a panel  that  occupies  nearly 
the  whole  field  and  contains  broad  incisions  at  each  side,  which  nearly 
divide  it  into  three  or  four  rectangular  sections.  Within  each  of 
them  are  octagonal  figures,  and  an  octagonal  shape  is  given  to  both 
ends  of  the  panel  so  as  to  leave  small  corners  to  the  field.  Each 
part  often  contains  small  designs  such  as  latch-hooks,  octagonal 
discs,  S forms,  eight-pointed  stars,  and  combs,  as  well  as  crudely 
drawn  dogs  and  other  animal  or  human  forms.  With  slight  modi- 
fications this  pattern  is  sometimes  repeated  in  the  prayer  rugs 
(Plate  C,  Fig.  11,  Page  61),  but  the  section  at  one  end  is  more  com- 
pletely an  octagon,  and  the  remainder  is  an  oblong  rectangle.  A 
more  usual  pattern  for  prayer  rugs  has  the  same  form  of  arch  that 
is  common  in  Daghestans. 

Whatever  the  fields  of  these  rugs  may  lack  in  delicacy  of  drawing 
is  amply  compensated  for  by  the  diversity  and  beauty  of  some  of 
their  borders,  which  have  a well  balanced  harmony  of  colours. 
They  have  seldom  less  than  three,  nor  more  than  five  stripes,  of 
which  the  secondary  are  often  as  interesting  as  the  primary.  The 
best  known  is  the  one  with  serrated  leaf  and  wine  glass,  represented 
in  Plate  I,  Fig.  1,  opp.  Page  226,  which  is  found  in  such  a large  percent- 
age of  Shirvans  that  it  is  almost  typical  of  them.  If  the  figures  of 
the  field  contain  latch-hooks,  they  are  very  apt  to  be  expressed  in 
some  form  in  the  primary  stripe.  Such  a one  appears  in  Plate  I, 
Fig.  2;  and  the  beautiful  Georgian  pattern  (Plate  J,  Fig.  9,  opp.  Page 
228)  is  also  occasionally  seen.  A very  much  rarer  stripe,  which  is 
shown  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  8,  is  only  used  when  the  field  has  a large  cen- 
tral panel  with  a corresponding  pattern.  Now  and  then  appears 
a stripe  with  no  other  ornamentation  than  a formal  row  of  pear  de- 
signs. Of  the  secondary  stripes,  the  one  with  the  designs  of  carna- 


214 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


tions  (Plate  K,  Fig.  1,  opp.  Page  230)  is  very  frequently  seen,  but  its 
beauty  depends  largely  upon  the  delicacy  of  its  drawing  and  colour 
scheme.  On  the  whole,  the  Shirvan  dyer  displays  a wider  scope  in 
the  selection  of  colours  than  his  Daghestan  neighbour,  but  the  tones 
are  not  always  so  rich  or  harmonious. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  ivory. 
Knot , Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  twelve;  per- 
pendicularly, eight  to  twelve.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed 
down,  so  that  the  transverse  warp  does  not  show  at  back.  Warp, 
wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  promi- 
nent at  back.  Weft,  generally  wool,  occasionally  cotton,  of  medium 
or  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  short  or  medium  length.  Border, 
three  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  generally  a weft  selvage  of  two  or  three 
cords  or  a double  selvage,  occasionally  a double  overcasting.  Both 
ends,  a web,  one  row  of  knots  or  more,  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture, 
slightly  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  moderately  coarse.  Usual  length, 
four  to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  one  half  to  four  fifths  length. 

Soumaks.  — Seventy  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Baku,  and  about 
the  same  distance  to  the  south  of  Kuba,  where  the  high  ranges  of 
the  Caucasus  begin  to  descend  to  the  sea,  is  the  city  of  Shemakha. 
It  was  almost  destroyed  by  Nadir  Shah,  but  recovered  sufficiently 
within  the  last  century  to  become  the  capital  of  Shirvan  and  a manu- 
facturing centre  of  silks.  It  is  the  market  place  for  many  tribes 
from  the  mountains  of  Daghestan  and  the  valley  of  the  Kur,  who 
take  thither  their  rugs,  from  which  its  own  weavers  often  borrow 
patterns.  By  a corruption  of  the  name  of  the  city,  their  fabrics  are 
called  Soumaks,  though  they  are  more  popularly  known  as  Kash- 
mirs, because  ends  of  yarn  hang  loosely  at  the  back,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  beautiful  shawls  of  the  noted  valley  of  India. 

It  is,  of  course,  the  finish  at  the  back  and  the  absence  of  pile 
that  make  them  so  different  from  all  other  rugs  and  place  them  in  a 
class  by  themselves;  but  even  apart  from  these  characteristics,  they 
are  as  distinct  a type  as  any  in  Caucasia.  On  the  fields  of  most  of 
them  are  three  or  four  diamond-shaped  medallions,  that  occupy 
nearly  the  full  width  of  the  field  and  extend  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
Almost  without  exception  thay  are  slightly  hexagonal,  and  are  in- 
cised on  the  diagonal  sides  to  represent  crosses.  These  patterns 
are  doubtless  derived  from  very  old  Armenian  rugs;  and  it  is  possible 


Plate  49.  Karabagh  Prater  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


215 


that  once  the  crosses  had  a religious  significance,  as  it  is  claimed 
that  the  earlier  weavers  of  this  type  were  a Christian  sect;  but 
the  present  weavers  are  mostly  Mohammedans.  At  the  centre  of 
the  medallions  and  in  the  triangular  spaces  at  the  sides  are  flattened 
octagons,  which  are  generally  ornamented  with  some  star-shaped 
devices.  Superimposed  on  these  larger  patterns  and  surrounding 
them  on  the  field,  are  also  many  small  designs,  which  as  a rule  are 
grouped  with  a regularity  suggestive  of  the  mosaic.  Some  are 
common  to  other  Caucasian  pieces;  but  a few  are  more  frequently 
seen  in  this  class  than  in  any  other,  as  for  instance,  the  knot  of 
destiny  (Plate  O,  Fig.  17,  Page  291),  and  the  tri-cleft  leaf,  drawn  like 
a bird’s  claw,  which  appeared  in  Armenian  rugs  at  least  five  cen- 
turies ago.  Sometimes  the  medallions  and  octagons  are  replaced 
by  smaller  and  more  ornate  figures,  but  the  geometric  character  is 
seldom  entirely  lost. 

There  are  also  some  old  pieces  with  a totally  different  pattern, 
and  with  fine  colours  that  are  most  pleasing  in  the  rich  harmony 
of  tones.  They  may  contain  geometric,  foliate,  or  floral  designs. 
One  recently  examined  had  a field  of  rose  red  completely  covered 
with  diagonal  rows  of  innumerable  dainty  figures,  which  were  evi- 
dently the  conventionalised  forms  of  small  flower  bushes.  Not  a 
single  other  design  appeared  in  the  field,  yet  the  richness  of  colour 
and  chasteness  of  pattern  made  it  exceedingly  beautiful. 

The  patterns  of  the  border  stripes,  that  number  from  two  to  five, 
are  generally  distinctive;  though  occasionally  they  follow  well 
known  Caucasian  drawing.  The  outer  one  has  so  frequently  the 
running  latch-hook  that  it  is  almost  typical.  As  a rule,  it  has  the 
simple  form  shown  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  20  (opp.  Page  230) ; but  now  and 
then  the  more  elaborate  drawing  of  the  Georgian  stripe  (Plate  J,  Fig. 
9,  opp.  Page  228)  is  followed.  Sometimes  this  is  replaced  by  the  re- 
ciprocal trefoil,  which  is  used  also  for  the  inner  stripe;  and  a running 
vine  and  rosette,  such  as  the  one  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  4,  is  not  infre- 
quently used  for  a secondary  stripe.  The  primary  stripes,  on  the 
other  hand,  although  most  dissimilar  to  those  of  other  rugs,  differ  so 
widely  among  themselves,  that  no  one  is  typical.  Separating  these 
primary  and  secondary  parts  of  the  border  are  frequently  narrow 
lines  with  the  barber-pole  device. 

The  old  pieces  are  of  fine  texture  and  excellent  wool,  which  even 
in  the  warp  displays  a silky  character.  The  dyes  are  faultless,  though 
the  colours  never  acquire  a lustre.  Red  and  blue  are  largely  em- 


216 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


ployed,  but  they  are  partly  replaced  by  brown  in  the  more  modern 
pieces;  and  in  both  old  and  modern  is  usually  an  orange  yellow  that 
rarely  appears  in  other  Caucasian  rugs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  brown, 
some  yellow,  and  white.  Knot,  flat  stitch.  Knots  to  inch  horizon- 
tally eight  to  fourteen;  perpendicularly,  six  to  sixteen.  Warp,  wool; 
each  thread  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  fine 
or  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between 
every  two  rows  of  knots  in  old  rugs,  and  between  every  second 
and  third  row  in  modern  rugs.  Border,  two  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  gen- 
erally a double  selvage  of  several  cords,  occasionally  an  overcasting. 
Both  ends,  narrow  web,  one  or  more  rows  of  knots  and  fringe; some- 
times heavy  added  selvage.  No  nap.  Usual  length,  five  and  one  half 
to  twelve  feet.  Usual  icidth,  one  half  to  three  quarters  length. 

Shemakhas.  — Flatly  woven  Soumaks  are  not  the  only  rugs  of 
the  Shemakha  tribes.  Some  of  the  same  people,  who  dwell  among 
the  ranges  of  the  Caucasus  a short  distance  to  the  north,  make  rugs 
of  pile  that  occasionally  surpass  in  quality  of  material  and  beauty  of 
colour  scheme  the  best  of  Daghestans,  and  are  sometimes  spoken  of 
by  dealers  as  “Royal  Daghestans;”  yet  they  are  seldom  seen  and 
little  known.  In  fact,  they  are  frequently  mistaken  for  Persian 
fabrics  on  account  of  the  subdued  richness  of  their  deep  reds,  blues, 
greens,  yellows,  and  browns,  and  the  patterns  which  are  largely 
floral. 

Very  often  the  principal  border  stripe  is  the  well-known  Geor- 
gian pattern,  that  occurs  in  so  many  Soumaks,  even  though  the 
secondary  stripe  be  some  Persian  pattern.  These  rugs  also  resemble 
the  Soumaks  in  the  coloured  woollen  selvage  of  the  sides,  and  in  the 
narrow  coloured  web  of  “herring-bone”  weave  and  knotted  fringe 
of  the  ends.  In  some,  the  field  is  divided  by  diagonal  bars  into  large 
diamond-shaped  figures  containing  conventionalised  flowers;  in 
others,  it  is  merely  a background  over  which  are  strewn  more  realis- 
tically drawn  floral  forms;  and  in  all  is  expressed  an  artistic  percep- 
tion of  design  and  colour  not  frequently  found  in  Caucasian  pieces. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  brown. 
Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  eleven;  per- 
pendicularly, seven  to  thirteen.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down, 
so  that  the  warp  is  almost  hidden.  Warp,  wool;  one  of  the  two 
threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the  other  at  back. 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


217 


Weft,  wool,  of  fine  or  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses 
twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length. 
Border,  two  to  three  stripes.  Sides,  a blue  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords. 
Both  ends,  a narrow  blue  web  of  “herring-bone”  weave,  a knotted 
selvage  or  several  rows  of  knots,  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture, 
slightly  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  fine  grain.  Usual 
length,  four  to  eight  feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

Tiflis.  — When  it  is  considered  that  for  centuries  Tiflis  has  been 
the  Georgian  capital,  where  culture  and  art  received  more  encourage- 
ment than  in  the  provinces;  that  it  was  in  constant  communication 
with  the  rug-producing  countries  on  all  sides;  and  was  on  one  of  the 
great  highways  between  Persia  and  Europe,  it  is  surprising  that  what 
has  been  written  hitherto  about  Caucasian  rugs  has  contained 
almost  no  reference  to  a type  peculiar  to  this  city  and  district. 
This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  within  recent  years  hardly 
any  rugs  have  been  produced  there,  and  that  the  old  pieces  are 
few  and  but  little  known. 

Nevertheless,  now  and  then  come  to  light  beautiful  old  rugs 
which  are  dissimilar  to  those  of  all  other  classes.  The  wool  of  their 
moderately  long  nap  has  a silkiness  that  suggests  a Shiraz  or  a 
Meshed;  the  colour  scheme  includes  a very  wide  range  of  bright 
and  positive  tones,  such  as  blue,  green,  rose,  and  ivory;  the  weave 
of  delicate  and  fine  threads  is  as  close  as  that  of  old  Bergamos. 
A glance  at  the  ends  and  back  helps  to  determine  the  type;  for  the 
warp  is  occasionally  of  cotton,  which  is  a peculiarity  not  seen  in 
many  other  Caucasian  classes;  the  weft  which  crosses  from  three 
to  five  times  is  of  very  finely  spun  wool  mostly  dyed  a brown  or  dull 
red,  and  strung  with  great  exactness;  and  the  knots  are  tied  with 
care.  There  is  also  something  distinctive  in  many  of  the  patterns; 
for  however  interesting  they  may  be,  precision  of  drawing  is  often 
combined  with  discordance  of  detail.  One  part  of  the  field,  for 
instance,  may  consist  of  a well  executed  diaper  pattern;  another 
part  may  represent  a number  of  stiff,  perpendicular,  parallel  bars, 
occupying  the  full  width  of  the  field;  and  still  another  part  may  be 
entirely  occupied  by  hexagonal-shaped  pear  designs.  Adjoining 
these  may  be  other  pear  designs  of  totally  dissimilar  shape  as  well 
as  mystic  symbols  and  other  strange  devices.  Likewise,  many 
different  colours  may  be  placed  in  close  relation,  yet  the  wool  is 
so  soft  and  the  tones  so  delicate  that  the  effect  is  not  harsh.  Some 


218 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


sort  of  tree-form  is  not  unusual;  but  on  the  whole,  the  designs  of 
both  field  and  border  are  geometric. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours , principally  blue  and  red,  with 

minor  quantities  of  yellow,  green,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  ten;  perpendicularly,  six  to  ten. 
A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  or  longer.  The 
rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  does  not  show 
at  back.  Warp,  generally  wool,  occasionally  cotton;  each  of  the 
two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft, 
wool,  of  fine  diameter,  usually  dyed  red  or  brown.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  from  three  to  five  times  between  every  two  rows  of  knots. 
Pile,  soft  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes. 
Sides,  a double  overcasting  or  narrow  selvage.  Both  ends,  a web 
and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  fine 
grain.  Usual  length,  six  to  eleven  feet.  Usual  width,  three  eighths 
to  two  thirds  length. 

Kutais.  — Among  a large  assortment  of  Caucasian  rugs  are 
occasionally  seen  a few  pieces  from  Kutais,  once  famed  as  the  home 
of  Media,  and  now  the  capital  of  Imeritia.  The  gardens  surrounding 
its  homes,  that  line  both  banks  of  the  river  Rion,  are  fragrant  with 
lilacs  and  roses;  in  the  valley  beyond  the  city,  pink  rhododendrons 
and  yellow  azaleas  blossom  beneath  the  oaks.  Here  is  woodland 
scenery  not  found  in  other  parts  of  Caucasia,  and  it  might  be  ex- 
pected that  the  weavings  of  the  people  would  have  a striking  in- 
dividuality of  their  own;  but  they  are  little  known  as  a distinct 
class.  In  fact,  they  bear  such  a resemblance  to  the  Kazaks  that 
they  are  constantly  mistaken  for  them;  though  as  a rule  they  have 
a more  oblong  shape  and  somewhat  shorter  nap;  they  are  less  stoutly 
woven,  less  barbaric,  and  contain  fewer  crude,  nomadic  devices. 
Moreover,  as  this  district  was  producing  rugs  before  the  Cossacks 
had  settled  permanently  in  Southern  Caucasia,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  some  of  its  patterns  were  copied  by  them. 

A peculiarity  of  this  class  is  the  drawing  of  the  pear  designs, 
which  are  found  in  a very  large  number  of  the  rugs.  The  extension 
of  the  narrower  end,  instead  of  being  a short,  curved  hook,  is  gener- 
ally more  developed,  so  that  it  may  be  as  long  as  the  major  axis 
of  the  pear  and  frequently  stands  almost  at  right  angles  to  it.  Also 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the  pear  are  rectangular  bead-like  processes 
(Plate  O,  Fig.  Cc,  Page  291).  In  many  of  these  rugs,  the  field  is  di- 


Plate  50.  Gengha  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


219 


vided  into  a number  of  bands  parallel  with  the  sides;  and  through 
them  run  vines,  from  which  the  pears  are  suspended.  Or  the  pears 
may  be  arranged  in  regular  order  on  the  field  without  the  bands  and 
vines.  Sometimes  the  field  is  reduced  to  a very  small  space  by  a 
broad  border  consisting  of  a number  of  stripes,  some  of  which  are 
often  of  striking  patterns.  One  of  them  is  represented  in  Plate  I, 
Fig.  15  (opp.  Page  226),  which  suggests  the  grape  vine  common  to 
the  gardens  of  Kutais.  Some  form  of  the  tree  of  life  and  floral  forms 
are  also  seen  in  old  pieces. 

A resemblance  exists  between  the  weave  of  Kutais  and  Tiflis  rugs,  as 
in  each  the  weft  usually  crosses  several  times;  it  is  generally  coloured 
blue  or  red,  and  is  formed  of  fine  threads  of  yarn.  The  wool  of  the 
nap  is  of  the  same  fine  quality;  but  the  warp  of  the  Kutais  rugs, 
which  is  almost  invariably  of  wool,  frequently  consists  of  a brown 
and  white  thread  twisted  together;  and  the  knots  are  tied  less  evenly, 
so  that  the  alignment  at  the  back  is  a little  more  irregular,  yet  less 
so  than  in  Kazaks. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  white, 
with  minor  quantities  of  yellow,  brown,  and  black.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  five  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  six  to  eleven. 
A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as  wide  or  longer.  The 
rows  of  knots  are  slightly  pressed  down.  The  alignment  is  more 
even  than  in  Kazaks.  Warp,  generally  wool,  occasionally  cotton; 
each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent 
at  the  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  fine  or  medium  diameter.  A thread  of 
weft  usually  crosses  three  times,  occasionally  only  once,  and  again 
four  or  five  times.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length  or  long.  Border, 
three  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  either  a double  overcasting,  or  a double 
selvage  of  two  or  three  cords.  Both  ends,  a web  and  warp  fringe. 
Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave  at  back,  generally  of  medium 
fine  grain  but  occasionally  coarse.  Usual  length,  six  to  twelve  feet. 
Usual  width,  one  third  to  two  thirds  length. 

Kazaks.  — Of  the  warlike  Cossack  tribes,  which  were  once 
stationed  along  the  southeastern  border  of  Russia  to  protect  it  from 
the  depradations  of  Caucasians,  a number  settled  permanently 
in  Circassia,  and  a few  crossed  the  mountains  to  the  high  plateau 
lying  between  Lake  Gotcha  and  Mt.  Ararat.  Here  they  adopted 
more  sedentary  lives;  but  there  still  lingers  the  inherited  spirit 
that  generations  ago  won  for  them  the  name  Kazaks,  which  denotes 


220 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


to  the  Tartars,  from  whom  many  have  doubtless  sprung,  a Ma- 
rauder. All  of  these  tribes  weave;  but  the  rugs  seen  in  this  country 
come  principally  from  the  southern  district,  where  may  also  be  found 
the  fabrics  of  other  races  such  as  Armenians,  Tartars,  and  the 
native  people.  Nevertheless,  the  Kazak  weavings  are  of  a most  dis- 
tinct type,  to  which  even  the  smaller  Kazakjes  conform.  They  have 
bright,  rich  colours,  of  which  a liberal  amount  of  green  is  almost 
invariably  present,  though  sparingly  used  in  other  Caucasian  rugs. 
Only  the  Tcherkess  vie  with  them  in  the  length  of  the  nap;  and  no 
other  class  has  such  noticeable  patterns  of  incongruous  sizes  and 
shapes.  They  have,  in  fact,  the  most  nomadic,  unconventional 
patterns  of  all  this  northern  group;  and  in  their  barbaric  char- 
acteristics, they  bear  much  the  same  relation  to  other  Caucasian 
rugs  as  those  of  Western  Kurdish  and  Yuruk  tribes  bear  to  Persian 
and  Asia  Minor  pieces. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  almost  mosaic  drawing  of  Chichis 
and  many  Daghestans,  the  Kazaks  show  a tribal  fondness  for  large 
patterns.  Sometimes  the  field  is  divided  into  three  horizontal  panels, 
which  may  be  entirely  plain  except  for  a simple  design  fringing 
the  edges;  or  as  is  more  frequently  the  case,  it  may  be  occupied 
by  large,  slightly  elongated  octagons,  within  which  are  represented 
smaller  figures.  Occupying  almost  the  entire  field  of  other  pieces 
are  large  patterns  like  medallions,  perfectly  balanced  with  reference 
to  the  centre  and  subdivided  into  small  sections,  each  of  which  con- 
tains individual  motives.  A few  of  this  class,  also,  have  the  “sun- 
burst ” pattern,  so  characteristic  of  the  Tcherkess. 

At  least  half  the  pieces  now  seen  are  without  any  formal  pattern, 
but  contain  a heterogeneous  lot  of  geometric  designs  characteristic 
of  nomadic  weavings;  but  even  these  are  generally  arranged  with 
the  idea  of  symmetrical  balance.  For  instance,  at  the  centre  may 
be  a large  geometric  figure  surrounded  at  equal  distances  by  pairs 
of  smaller  and  similar  figures.  Not  infrequently  the  drawing  of  the 
upper  and  lower  half,  or  of  the  right  and  left  side,  shows  an  almost 
perfect  correspondence,  notwithstanding  the  many  separate  de- 
signs. The  most  common  of  these  are  eight-pointed  stars,  lozenges 
fringed  with  latcli-hooks,  and  what  are  known  as  the  “tarantula” 
device.  Of  the  innumerable  small  figures,  the  octagonal  discs  and 
S forms  are  the  most  common;  crude  animal  and  human  figures 
are  also  seen. 

Excepting  the  addition  of  the  arch,  there  is  little  distinction 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


221 


between  namazliks  and  sedjadehs.  It  is  small  and  less  graceful 
than  that  of  Asia  Minor  pieces,  and  follows  stiff  lines  in  harmony 
with  the  general  pattern.  It  is,  however,  drawn  in  two  different 
ways.  Generally  it  has  the  shape  of  half  an  octagon,  or  of  a wall- 
tent  with  apex  flattened ; but  not  infrequently  it  is  square  or  slightly 
oblong.  The  narrow  bands  that  form  the  arch  are  extended  trans- 
versely from  each  side  of  the  base  to  the  borders;  and  occasionally 
they  are  continued  down  the  sides  of  the  field  to  form  at  the  bottom 
a figure  similar  to  the  square-shaped  arch.  Now  and  then  a comb, 
or  small  figure  of  diamond  shape,  on  which  to  place  the  bit  of  sacred 
earth  from  Mecca,  is  outlined  within  the  mihrab;  and  now  and  then 
crude  palm-like  figures,  indicating  where  the  hands  are  to  be  rested 
in  the  act  of  devotion,  are  represented  at  the  sides. 

However  many  stripes  the  border  may  contain,  rarely  are  there 
more  than  one  of  any  consequence;  since  the  guard  stripes  have 
generally  only  the  reciprocal  sawtooth  or  trefoil  patterns,  the  barber- 
pole  or  dotted  lines.  The  absence  of  important  secondary  stripes, 
however,  brings  out  more  prominently  the  drawing  and  colouring 
of  the  main  one.  The  most  common  pattern  is  what  is  known  as  the 
“tarantula”  represented  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  8 (opp.  Page  226).  Very 
similar  is  the  crab  pattern  (Plate  I,  Fig.  7),  which  was  undoubtedly 
derived  from  the  double  vine  of  some  Persian  rug,  as  the  crab-like 
figure  may  be  resolved  into  a rosette  to  which  are  attached  four  conven- 
tionalised leaves.  Another  pattern,  which  is  also  seen  in  Kutais  rugs, 
is  the  crude  but  striking  vine  shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  15,  which,  when 
represented  in  bold,  rich  colours  on  an  ivory  field,  makes  a most 
effective  and  beautiful  border  stripe.  Other  border  stripes  frequently 
employed  in  these  rugs  appear  in  Plate  I. 

Unfortunately,  during  recent  years,  many  inferior  rugs  of  other 
tribes  have  been  sold  as  Kazaks,  which  in  a measure  they  often  re- 
semble though  they  lack  their  spirit  and  character.  The  very  modern 
Kazaks,  also,  are  often  of  poor  quality,  but  those  made  two  genera- 
tions or  more  ago  were  carefully  and  stoutly  woven,  with  silky 
wool  dyed  with  the  best  of  vegetable  colours.  There  is  always 
something  interestingly  barbaric  in  their  long,  almost  shaggy  nap, 
their  masses  of  rich  red  and  green,  their  bold  designs  surrounded 
by  smaller  nomadic  figures,  all  of  which  collectively  find  no  counter- 
part in  any  other  Caucasian  rugs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  green,  and  yellow, 
also  some  blue,  white,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch 


222 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


horizontally  six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  ten.  The  rows 
of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  hidden  at  back.  Warp, 
wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prom- 
inent at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  coarse  diameter,  usually  dyed  red  or 
brown.  A thread  of  weft  generally  crosses  only  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots,  but  occasionally  three  or  four  times.  Pile, 
wool,  clipped  long.  Border,  three  to  five  stripes.  Sides,  a double 
overcasting  attached  in  figure-eight  fashion  to  the  sides,  or  a double 
selvage  having  from  three  to  five  cords.  Lower  end,  a red  or  brown 
web  and  warp  loops,  or  a braided  selvage  and  fringe.  Upper  end , 
a red  or  brown  web,  occasionally  a braided  selvage  or  several  rows 
of  knots,  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  stout.  Weave  at  back  is  of 
very  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  twelve  feet.  Usual  width, 
one  third  to  three  quarters  length. 

Karabaghs.  — To  the  southeast  of  Lake  Gotcha  and  north 
of  the  river  Aras,  that  divides  Caucasia  from  Persia,  is  the  district 
of  Karabagh,  a name  signifying  “Black  Vineyard.”  On  account  of 
its  geographic  position,  it  has  been  subject  to  the  Shahs  for  long 
periods,  during  the  many  struggles  between  the  two  countries. 
It  is,  moreover,  separated  from  the  rug-producing  district  of  Kara- 
dagh  by  the  river  only;  and  its  southern  border  is  less  than  eighty 
miles  distant  from  the  city  of  Tabriz,  to  which  many  of  its  rugs  are 
taken.  For  these  reasons  it  would  be  only  natural  to  expect  that  the 
weavings  of  Karabagh  would  show  more  of  the  Persian  influence 
than  those  of  any  other  part  of  Caucasia.  Such,  indeed,  is  true,  when 
applied  to  the  oldest  pieces;  but  it  is  not  at  all  true  in  the  case  of 
a large  percentage  of  the  modern  products. 

Within  recent  years  large  numbers  of  these  coarsely  made  and 
wretchedly  dyed  rugs  have  reached  the  Western  markets.  Some 
of  them  resemble  Kazaks  in  their  geometric  figures;  but  differ 
from  them  in  their  workmanship,  since  one  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed ; they  are  much  more  loosely  woven ; 
they  are  not  so  large;  nor  for  the  most  part  are  they  so  heavy. 
Other  pieces  often  lack  the  symbolic  and  other  small  designs  that 
render  nomadic  rugs  so  interesting.  Occasionally  the  central  field 
is  almost  figureless,  or  there  may  be  large  expanses  of  white  or  some 
raw  colour  such  as  startling  red,  yellow,  or  blue,  on  which  appear 
stiffly  and  crudely  drawn  nondescript  devices. 

It  is  a relief  to  turn  from  these  poor  pieces  to  those  woven  half 


Plate  51.  Royal  Bokhara  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


223 


a century  ago,  with  less  obtrusive  colouring  and  more  chaste  patterns. 
Many  of  the  old  pieces  are  oblong  sedjadehs,  which  have  often  a 
length  almost  twice  the  breadth;  though  the  more  modern  pieces  in- 
cline to  smaller  and  nearly  square  sizes.  There  are  also  namazliks  that 
do  not  always  religiously  follow  the  usual  pattern;  for  now  and  then 
one  is  seen  with  an  arch  of  several  steps,  rising  from  near  the  middle 
of  the  sides,  and  with  a diamond  for  the  sacred  earth  or  pebble 

from  Mecca,  as  is  shown  in  Plate  C,  Fig.  12  (Page  61).  The  par- 
ticular piece  from  which  this  was  drawn  was  over  fifty  years  old 

and  was  three  fourths  as  wide  as  long.  Scattered  over  the  main 

field,  which  was  yellowish  brown,  and  the  spandrels,  which  were 
white,  were  geometrically  shaped  flowers  with  long  angular  stems 
tinted  with  blue,  green,  and  pinkish  red. 

The  borders  show  as  great  diversity  as  the  fields,  but  one  stripe 
usually  contains  a concession  to  the  Persian  and  another  to  the 
Caucasian  tradition.  For  instance,  the  primary  stripe  may  be  of 
Iranian  character  flanked  by  the  running  latch-hook;  or  it  may  be 
the  well-known  crab  pattern,  while  the  adjacent  stripe  may  be  a 
running  vine  of  simple  form. 

Many  of  these  old  pieces  are  very  handsome  and  equal  in  artistic 
finish  the  best  of  Caucasian  rugs;  the  drawing  is  carefully  executed; 
the  colours  are  rich;  the  weave  is  fair;  but  like  the  rare  old  rugs  of 
Daghestan  and  Tiflis,  are  now  seldom  seen. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  yellow, 
and  white.  Knot,  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  ten; 
perpendicularly,  seven  to  ten.  The  rows  of  knots  are  only  slightly 
pressed  down,  yet  the  warp  is  generally  concealed  at  back.  Warp, 
wool;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a half  knot  is  depressed 
below  the  other  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  or  coarse  diameter, 
sometimes  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  short  or  medium  length.  Border, 
three  stripes.  Sides,  generally  a double  selvage  of  two  or  three 
cords,  in  lengths  of  different  colours;  occasionally  a double  overcast- 
ing attached  figure-eight  fashion.  Lower  end,  a web  and  warp  loops, 
or  a braided  selvage,  one  row  of  knots  or  more,  and  a warp 
fringe.  Upper  end,  a web,  a web  turned  back  and  hemmed,  or 
a braided  selvage,  one  row  of  knots  or  more,  and  a warp  fringe. 
Texture,  loose.  Weave  at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length, 
four  to  nine  feet.  Usual  width,  one  half  to  three  quarters 
length. 


224 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Shushas.  — About  seventy  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Lake 
Gotcha  is  Shusha,  capital  of  Karabagh.  Nearly  two  centuries  ago, 
it  was  built  by  Nadir  Shah  on  an  almost  inaccessible  mountain  side 
to  guard  the  northern  boundary  of  Persia,  which  had  been  extended 
to  the  Caucasus.  It  has  now  about  twelve  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  is  the  market  place  for  numerous  tribes  that  are  scattered 
over  the  dry  plains  as  far  as  the  Aras  river.  In  this  city  and  in  the 
suburbs  are  woven  rugs  that  are  frequently  imported  to  this  country 
and  sold  under  several  names,  yet  are  of  a distinct  type.  They 
resemble  the  Karabaghs  of  the  surrounding  country  but  differ 
from  them  in  their  richer  and  more  subdued  colours  as  well  as  in 
the  stoutness  of  weave.  One  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot  is  doubled 
beneath  the  other,  whereas  in  the  rugs  of  the  desert  tribes  it  is  only 
depressed. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  blue,  red,  and 
brown,  with  minor  quantities  of  green  and  yellow.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  twelve ; perpendicularly,  six 
to  eleven.  The  rows  of  knots  are  only  slightly  pressed  down,  so 
that  the  warp  shows  at  back.  Warp,  wool;  one  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  much  depressed  below  the  other  at  back, 
and  frequently  doubled  under  the  other.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium 
diameter,  generally  dyed  red.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between 
every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border, 
three  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords,  often  at- 
tached to  the  sides  in  figure-eight  fashion.  Lower  end,  a narrow  web 
and  warp  loops.  Upper  end,  a web  that  is  sometimes  turned  back 
and  hemmed,  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  slightly  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  four  to  nine  feet. 
Usual  width,  one  half  to  three  quarters  length. 

Genghas.  — Over  the  land  lying  between  lakes  Gotcha,  Van, 
and  Urumiah,  in  Caucasia,  Armenia,  and  Persia,  tribes  of  mixed 
origin  wander  back  and  forth,  but  frequently  gather  at  the  yearly 
fair  of  Elizabethpol.  During  the  period  when  the  Persian  rule  ex- 
tended over  the  country,  it  was  the  residence  of  a Khan  and  an 
important  centre  of  trade.  As  it  was  then  known  as  Ganja  or  Gengha, 
the  weavings  of  these  nomads,  which  were  marketed  there,  acquired 
that  name. 

Naturally  they  are  a heterogeneous  lot  containing  ideas  incor- 
porated from  many  sources;  but  they  resemble  the  Kazaks  more 


Plate  .j12.  Princess  Bokhara  Rug 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


22  5 


than  anything  else,  and  are  frequently  mistaken  for  them.  Yet  some 
of  the  distinctions  are  very  marked:  they  have  a more  oblong  shape; 
the  nap  is  shorter;  and  they  are  less  stoutly  woven.  In  the  Kazaks 
a thread  of  weft,  as  a rule,  crosses  only  twice  between  two  rows  of 
knots,  which  are  firmly  pressed  down;  but  in  these  rugs  a thread  of 
weft  crosses  from  four  to  eight  times  between  two  rows  of  knots, 
which  are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  narrow  filling  of  weft 
is  sometimes  even  four  times  as  wide  as  a row  of  knots  and  presents 
a bead-like  appearance.  In  the  colour  scheme  of  numerous  pieces, 
which  in  many  respects  resembles  that  of  Karabaghs,  is  often  a 
preponderance  of  ivory  white.  There  is  no  characteristic  pattern. 
The  field  may  be  covered  with  diagonal  stripes  as  in  some  Shirvans; 
it  may  consist  largely  of  lozenges  fringed  with  latch-hooks  and  taran- 
tula devices;  again,  it  may  have  some  large  central  figure  surrounded 
by  a motley  lot  of  emblematic  as  well  as  apparently  meaningless 
devices,  or  crudely  drawn  human,  animal,  or  floral  forms.  The 
borders,  likewise,  include  a wide  scope  of  patterns.  It  is,  therefore, 
largely  by  the  character  of  the  weave,  quality  of  material,  and  finish 
of  sides  and  ends,  that  these  pieces  can  be  distinguished  from  other 
nomadic  products. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  blue,  red,  and  white, 
with  minor  quantities  of  green,  yellow,  and  brown.  Knot,  Ghiordes. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  eight;  perpendicularly,  six  to  nine. 
A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  longer  than  wide.  The  rows 
of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  shows  at  the 
back.  Warp,  generally  wool,  occasionally  goat’s  hair;  each  of  the 
two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back. 
Weft,  wool,  of  medium  diameter  and  usually  dyed  red.  A thread 
of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  but  generally 
three  and  frequently  as  many  as  six  or  eight  times.  Pile,  wool  of 
medium  length.  Border,  three  or  four  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage 
of  two,  three,  or  four  cords.  Lower  end,  a web,  usually  coloured 
red,  and  warp  loops.  Upper  end,  a web  to  which  a braided  selvage 
is  often  added,  and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  very  loose.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  coarse  grain.  Usual  length,  five  to  nine  feet.  Usual 
width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

BORDER  STRIPES 

Disregarding  a very  few  floral  secondary  stripes  that  have  been 
derived  from  Persian  rugs,  the  Caucasian  borders  are  characterised 


226 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


by  geometric  patterns,  which  distinguish  them  from  other  groups. 
But  were  it  possible  to  trace  them  to  their  origin,  it  would  doubtless 
be  found  that  a very  large  number  that  are  now  strictly  geometric 
have  degenerated  from  leaf  and  flower  patterns.  Of  the  remainder, 
some  are  symbolic  and  others  are  crude  copies  of  familiar  objects. 
The  more  artistic  and  realistically  drawn  floral  patterns  appear  in 
the  less  conspicuous  secondary  stripes;  but  on  the  other  hand  the 
primary  stripes  contain  a number  of  unusually  interesting  patterns, 
which  have  been  copied  for  centuries. 

Primary  Stripes.  — The  cup  and  serrated  leaf  pattern  (Plate  I, 
Fig.  1,  opp.  Page  226)  appears  so  frequently  in  Shirvans  as  to  be  al- 
most typical.  It  is  also  occasionally  seen  in  Daghestans  and  Kabistans; 
but  probably  originated  in  Southern  Caucasia  or  Armenia,  since  it  is 
found  similarly  drawn  in  rugs  woven  in  that  district  about  1500  a.  d. 
It  is  a pattern  that  scarcely  varies  with  time  or  locality  except  in 
the  number  of  serrations  to  the  leaf  and  in  the  shape  of  the  cup. 

Serrated  leaf  patterns,  represented  in  Figs.  2 and  3,  Plate  I, 
are  sometimes  seen  in  Kazak  and  other  nomadic  rugs.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  they  have  a common  origin  with  the  Shirvan 
cup  and  leaf  pattern. 

In  the  stripe  represented  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  4,  is  a series  of  wine 
cup  rosettes  that  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  old  rugs  from  the 
Shirvan  district.  In  fact,  the  wine  cup  design  is  a favourite  there. 

Another  stripe,  in  which  a somewhat  similar  cup  appears,  is 
shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  5.  This  is  an  old  nomadic  pattern  not  fre- 
quently seen. 

Fig.  6 of  Plate  I,  represents  the  well-known  Chichi  border  stripe, 
composed  of  rosettes  separated  by  diagonally  drawn  ribbon-like  bars. 
To  the  rosettes  are  attached  tri-cleft  leaves.  This  stripe  suggests  at 
once  some  Persian  vine  and  flower. 

What  is  known  as  the  crab  pattern  (Plate  I,  Fig.  7),  is  seen  in 
Kazaks  and  other  Caucasian  nomadic  rugs,  as  well  as  in  a few  very 
modern  Asia  Minor  pieces.  Though  its  resemblance  to  a crab  is 
noticeable,  it  is  really  a rosette  to  which  are  attached  four  crudely 
drawn  leaves,  that  frequently  contain  smaller  designs  at  their 
centres. 

Slightly  resembling  the  last  is  the  so-called  tarantula  pattern 
(Plate  I,  Fig.  8),  that  was  possibly  derived  from  the  stripe  with  an 
eight-pointed  star  (Plate  K,  Fig.  12,  opp.  Page  230) ; but  it  seems  more 


Plate  I.  Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Caucasian  Rugs 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


227 


probable  that  the  inspiration  is  Iranian  and  that  it  is  intended  for 
rosette  and  double  vine.  This  stripe  is  found  in  Kazaks,  Genglias, 
Tcherkess,  and  other  nomadic  rugs. 

Somewhat  like  the  last  is  the  stripe  of  Plate  I,  Fig.  9,  that  is  now 
and  then  seen  in  old  Tiflis  and  other  rugs  of  Southern  Caucasia. 
It  suggests  a geometric  rosette  and  double  vine. 

Occasionally  the  dainty  clover-leaf  design,  represented  in  Plate  I, 
Fig.  10,  is  used  by  the  nomadic  weavers.  It  is  almost  the  only  re- 
ciprocal pattern  found  in  a Caucasian  primary  stripe. 

The  repetitive  urn-shaped  pattern  of  Plate  I,  Fig.  11  is  once  in 
a while  seen  in  old  rugs  of  the  Daghestan  country. 

On  account  of  the  resemblance  between  the  stripes  shown  in 
Plate  I,  Figs.  12  and  13,  they  have  probably  a common  origin. 
Both  are  found  in  rugs  of  the  Daghestan  and  Shirvan  districts, 
and  the  former  is  occasionally  seen  in  rugs  of  Asia  Minor.  Sometimes 
smaller  adventitious  devices  are  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  stripes 
between  the  rosettes. 

Resembling  the  last  is  the  pattern  shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  14, 
which  is  commonly  seen  in  Shirvan  rugs  and  kilims.  It  is  purely 
geometric  and  resembles  one  used  in  Western  Asia  Minor  rugs  of 
the  XV  Century,  from  which  it  may  have  been  derived. 

Though  greatly  conventionalised,  the  pattern  represented  in 
Plate  I,  Fig.  15  is  a vine  and  leaf  derived  from  much  more  ornate 
forms,  which  may  be  seen  in  a XVI  Century  Asia  Minor  piece  that  is 
in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  now  seldom  copied,  but  was  once  a 
popular  pattern  for  the  Kazak  and  Kutais  weavers. 

Some  form  of  the  latch-hook  appears  in  a large  number  of  Cau- 
casian stripes,  but  mostly  in  nomadic  pieces.  Figs.  16,  17,  18,  19, 
and  20  of  Plate  I,  represent  patterns  found  mostly  in  old  Kazaks 
and  kindred  rugs.  The  last  one  is  also  occasionally  used  as  a secon- 
dary stripe.  The  patterns  shown  in  Plate  I,  Figs.  21  and  22  are  from 
stripes  sometimes  seen  in  the  Daghestan  and  Shirvan  districts. 

A much  more  interesting  stripe  because  of  its  well  authenticated  an- 
tiquity, is  the  one  shown  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  1 (opp.  Page  228) . It  is  found 
in  rugs  made  in  Southern  Caucasia  two  centuries  ago,  and  according 
to  Dr.  Martin  has  been  used  since  the  XII  Century.  Probably  as  the 
result  of  copying,  the  design  appears  reversed  in  many  old  rugs.* 
These  stripes  are  seen  in  comparatively  recent  pieces,  but  principally 

* One  of  these  is  represented  in  Dr.  Bode’s  “Knupfteppiche,”  where  it  appears 
as  a secondary  stripe. 


228 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


in  those  of  the  Daghestan  and  Shirvan  districts.  Though  the  latch- 
hook  is  suggested  by  the  small  triangular  parts,  it  is  more  probable 
that  originally  they  were  intended  for  leaves.  In  a few  stripes  the 
design  is  elongated,  and  in  place  of  a single  crossbar  there  are  several, 
forming  a figure  that  slightly  resembles  a poinsetta,  which  is  the 
term  occasionally  applied  to  it  by  weavers. 

The  stripe  shown  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  2,  which  is  found  in  Kazak 
and  other  nomadic  rugs,  is  interesting  as  representing  a vine  of  which 
the  pendant  flower  is  replaced  by  a T formed  by  latch-hooks. 

In  Figs.  3 and  4 of  Plate  J,  are  patterns  of  stripes  found  in  rugs 
of  the  Shirvan  and  Daghestan  districts.  As  they  are  several  centuries 
old,  they  may  be  derived  from  Armenian  patterns,  to  which  they 
show  kinship.  Both  patterns  are  at  times  reversed  as  the  result  of 
copying.*  A stripe  also  used  in  the  same  districts  and  probably 
of  similar  origin  is  seen  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  5. 

Differing  from  any  of  these  because  of  their  utilitarian  origin, 
are  the  separate  designs,  which  arranged  in  perpendicular  rows, 
form  the  “churn”  stripe  of  Plate  J,  Fig.  6.  Each  of  them  represents 
crude  machines  for  churning  milk,  which  were  formerly  used  by  the 
nomadic  tribes  of  Southern  Caucasia  and  Armenia,  who  constructed 
them  out  of  logs  with  a length  of  about  five  feet,  and  placed  the 
sharpened  base  in  the  ground.  Then  hanging  a goat’s  skin  filled 
with  milk  over  each  of  the  sides,  and  seating  themselves  in  the 
middle,  they  turned  first  one  then  the  other.  As  might  be  expected, 
these  stripes  belong  entirely  to  nomadic  rugs. 

Figs.  7 and  8 of  Plate  J,  represent  stripes  sometimes  seen  in 
Shirvans.  The  latter  is  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  prayer 
patterns  that  are  often  used  in  these  rugs. 

What  is  known  as  the  Georgian  stripe  is  shown  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  9. 
It  is  found  in  Daghestans,  Kabistans,  Shirvans,  Soumaks,  She- 
makhas,  and  Kubas.  Though  a primary  stripe,  it  is  rarely  placed 
at  the  centre  of  the  border,  but  at  the  outer  or  the  inner  side,  or  at 
both  sides  with  a less  ornate  stripe  between.  As  a rule  it  accom- 
panies only  the  more  artistic  rugs. 

Generally  the  primary  stripes  of  Soumaks  are  different  from  those 
of  other  rugs.  A few  appear  in  Figs.  10,  11  and  12  of  Plate  J.  The 
last  is  interesting  on  account  of  the  leaf-like  forms  of  the  octagonal 
designs. 

* An  intermediate  pattern  suggested  by  each  is  found  in  an  old  Asia  Minor 
piece  owned  by  Dr.  Bode. 


I 


a. 


6 


7 


mmm 


Plate  J.  Primary  Border-Stripes  of  Caucasian  Rugs 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


229 


The  stripes  seen  in  Plate  J,  Figs.  13,  14  and  15  are  found  only 
in  nomadic  mgs.  The  last  is  interesting  principally  on  account  of 
the  swastikas. 

And  old  form  now  and  then  seen  in  the  Daghestan-Shirvan 
classes  appear  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  16.  It  is  an  archaic  pattern  copied 
from  a most  interesting  Daghestan  prayer  rug. 

The  stripe  shown  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  17  is  sometimes  adopted  in 
rugs  of  Southern  Caucasia,  such  as  the  Kutais  and  Kazak. 

Another  very  old  pattern  found  in  the  borders  of  the  Daghestan- 
Shirvan  classes  is  shown  in  Plate  J,  Fig.  18.  Though  it  suggests 
the  narrow  tertiary  stripes  known  as  “barber-poles,”  it  differs  from 
them  by  being  very  much  wider,  and  by  containing  bars  of  many  dif- 
ferent colours,  as  red,  yellow,  cream,  blue,  green,  and  brown,  which 
generally  contain  short,  oblong  dashes. 

A very  interesting  stripe,  found  almost  exclusively  in  rugs  from 
the  districts  of  Daghestan  and  Shirvan,  is  the  Cufic  pattern  of 
Plate  J,  Fig.  19.  It  is  particularly  characteristic  of  old  Daghestans 
and  Kabistans,  but  must  have  been  introduced  through  Shirvan 
from  Armenia,  as  it  can  be  traced  through  a gradation  of  changes 
to  stripes  of  Cufic  characters  used  in  Asia  Minor  rugs  of  the  XV 
Century. 

Plate  J,  Fig.  20  represents  a “ bracket-chain  ” pattern  that  prob- 
ably originated  in  Asia  Minor,  but  is  occasionally  found  in  the  rugs 
of  Caucasia. 

In  Plate  J,  Fig.  21  is  a stripe  representing  scorpions,  that  is  very 
rarely  seen  in  Shirvans;  and  in  Fig.  22  is  a stripe  representing  birds, 
sometimes  seen  in  Bakus. 

Secondary  and  Tertiary  Stripes.  — As  the  pattern  shown  in 
Plate  K,  Fig.  1 (opp.  Page  230)  shows  in  profile  flowers  representing 
carnations,  it  has  been  called  the  “carnation  pattern.”  It  is  very 
common  in  Shirvans,  Kabistans,  and  Daghestans. 

Less  frequently  seen  are  the  rectangular  vine  with  a desiign  Ike 
a three-leaf  clover,  shown  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  2,  and  the  very  graceful 
vine  with  leaf  and  flower  shown  in  Fig.  3,  both  of  which  are  indis- 
criminately used  in  place  of  the  carnation  pattern  in  rugs  with  the 
same  primary  stripe.  The  latter  is  the  most  dainty  and  graceful 
Caucasian  floral  stripe.  It  is  found  in  pieces  of  the  Kabistan  and 
Daghestan  classes  made  over  a century  and  a half  ago,  and  is  prob- 
ably of  Iranian  extraction. 


230 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Another  floral  pattern  from  the  same  district  is  seen  in  Plate  K, 
Fig.  4.  It  often  accompanies  the  Georgian  stripe  of  Daghestans  and 
Soumaks,  with  which  its  stiff  drawing  harmonises. 

Likewise,  the  stripe  shown  in  Fig.  5 is  found  now  and  then 
in  the  same  classes  of  rugs.  Similar  rosettes  are  sometimes  rep- 
resented in  Persian  stripes  that  show  the  influence  of  nomadic 
weavers. 

Simple  forms  of  the  running  vine  which  are  seen  mostly  in  the 
rugs  of  Southern  Caucasia  are  represented  in  Plate  K,  Figs.  6,  7,  8,  9, 
and  10.  All  are  old  patterns.  The  third  appears  in  an  Asia  Minor 
carpet  woven  about  1250  a.  d.  The  fourth  is  found  in  some  of  the 
oldest  remaining  rugs  from  Southern  Caucasia,  that  date  back  two 
and  a half  centuries;  and  a pattern  similar  to  the  last  is  seen  in 
so.me  Persian  carpets  made  about  1650  a.d. 

Plate  K,  Figs.  11  and  12  represent  stripes  sometimes  seen  in 
Chichis  and  a few  other  Caucasian  rugs. 

A very  simple  pattern,  but  one  that  at  times  is  very  attractive 
on  account  of  its  delicate  colouring,  is  shown  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  13, 
and  another  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  Both  are  used  principally  in  rugs 
of  Southern  Caucasia. 

The  stripe  represented  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  15,  is  found  in  very  old 
rugs  of  the  Daghestan  and  Derbend  types;  and  there  is  a tradition 
among  some  of  the  native  weavers  that  the  designs  originally  rep- 
resented boat  hooks  used  by  the  sailors  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It 
is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  the  early  weavers  imitated 
objects  of  utility  before  those  of  mere  ornament;  but  even  if  there 
is  any  basis  for  the  tradition,  it  is  equally  probable  that  these  designs 
are  derived  from  the  lily  or  other  floral  forms,  and  were  introduced 
from  Persia. 

Somewhat  similar  to  the  last  is  the  reciprocal  trefoil,  which  gener- 
ally appears  with  more  simple  drawing  than  is  shown  in  Plate  F,  Fig. 
17  (opp.  Page  158).  It  is  more  widely  used  for  a border  stripe  than 
any  other  pattern,  as  it  is  found  in  almost  all  Caucasian,  in  a large 
number  of  Persian,  in  Indian,  and  Beluchistan  rugs.  It  was  com- 
monly used  in  Persian  rugs  as  early  as  the  year  1500. 

The  dainty  Chain  pattern  of  Plate  K,  Fig.  16  has  a well  authen- 
ticated antiquity,  as  it  is  found  in  Asia  Minor  carpets  of  the  XV 
Century,  from  which  it  was  probably  derived.  Without  doubt 
it  was  a favourite  pattern  three  centuries  ago,  as  it  appears  in  some 
of  the  early  paintings  in  which  Oriental  carpets  are  represented. 


a 


n 


CSBEtta 


13 


1+ 


5 


r 


g/IM/TM 


ro 


Plate  K.  Secondary  and  Tertiary  Border-Stripes  of  Caucasian  Rugs 


CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


231 


Not  infrequently  the  right-angled  corners  are  rounded  so  as  to  give 
it  a more  graceful  form. 

As  the  purely  geometric  pattern  of  Plate  K,  Fig.  17  is  entirely 
lacking  in  ornamental  features,  it  is  used  principally  to  separate 
more  important  stripes.  Occasionally  it  is  found  in  such  rugs  as 
the  Chicliis  and  Shirvans. 

Another  very  simple  pattern  that  is  sometimes  used  as  an  in- 
side stripe  is  seen  in  Plate  K,  Fig.  18.  This  is  evidently  an  archaic 
form  and  is  found  principally  in  pieces  of  the  Shirvan  district. 

The  reciprocal  sawtooth  and  the  running  latch-hook  patterns 
(Plate  K,  Figs.  19  and  20)  belong  to  the  less  important  stripes  of  not 
only  Caucasian  but  a number  of  Persian  rugs.  The  former  pattern 
appears  constantly  on  the  monuments  of  ancient  Susa,  and  doubt- 
less had  once  some  symbolic  meaning.  The  latter  is  seen  in  the 
corners  of  the  Dragon  and  Phoenix  carpet  (Plate  20,  opp.  Page  88) 
which  was  woven  about  1350  a.d. 


TECHNICALITIES  IN  THE  WEAVE  OF  CAUCASIAN  RUGS 


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CHAPTER  XII 

CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


HE  land  that  extends  eastward  about  four- 
teen hundred  miles  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  western  boundary  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
and  northward  for  a similar  distance  from 
the  Arabian  Sea  through  Beluchistan  and 
Afghanistan  to  the  steppes  of  Western  Si- 
beria, is  one  of  the  least  civilised  parts  of  the 
eastern  continent.  Here  until  within  a few 
recent  years,  the  people  lived  the  same  untrammelled  lives  that 
their  ancestors  pursued  for  past  centuries;  and  the  encroachments 
of  the  Russian  Empire  on  the  north  and  the  English  on  the  south- 
east, have  as  yet  made  little  impression  on  their  uncultured  na- 
tures. To  these  circumstances  it  is  largely  due  that  the  rugs 
termed  Central  Asiatic,  which  come  from  this  district,  still  pos- 
sess to  a large  degree  the  originality  of  design,  virility  of  character, 
and  beauty  of  colour  that  are  so  rapidly  disappearing  from  the 
woven  products  of  countries  more  subject  to  the  influence  of  West- 
ern civilisation. 

These  rugs  may  conveniently  be  divided  into  three  natural  sub- 
groups, which  include: 

1.  The  Turkoman,  consisting  of  what  are  known  in  this  country 
as  Royal  and  Princess  Bokharas,  the  Tekkes,  Yomuds,  Kliivas, 
and  Beshires,  all  of  which  are  made  in  Turkestan;*  and  the  Afghan, 
of  which  part  are  made  in  Turkestan  and  part  in  Afghanistan. 

2.  The  Turko-Chinese,  consisting  of  the  Samarkands,  which 

* A.  Bogolubow,  in  his  excellent  work  “Tapis  de  l’Asie  Centrale,”  divides  the 
Transcaspian  Turkomans  into  two  principal  groups,  the  Salors  and  Yomouds, 
each  of  which  includes  subgroups.  These  are  again  divisible  into  many  tribes, 
almost  all  of  whom  weave.  As  their  rugs,  though  resembling  one  another,  show 
different  characteristics,  they  might  properly  be  separated  into  numerous  classes; 
but  since  only  a few  of  them  are  known  in  this  country,  they  alone  will  be 
described. 


234 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


are  made  in  Western  Turkestan,  and  the  Kasgliars  and  Yarkands 
made  in  Eastern  Turkestan. 

3.  The  Beluchistans  or  Beluches,  made  principally  in  Beluchistan. 

No  other  rugs  adhere  more  strictly  to  uniformity  of  colour  and 
design  than  the  Turkoman.  And,  when  it  is  considered  that  their 
prevailing  tones  and  their  simple,  geometric  designs  are  such  as 
would  readily  be  adopted  by  people  with  primitive  ideas  of  ornamen- 
tation, it  seems  probable  that  they  have  been  copied  with  only 
slight  modification  for  a great  many  centuries,  even  though  more 
gorgeous  and  elaborate  carpets  were  woven  during  the  short  period 
when  Samarkand  was  capital  of  the  East.  This  is  probably  true, 
notwithstanding  no  other  country  in  the  world  has  been  subject 
to  more  conquests  than  Turkestan  or  overrun  by  so  many  different 
races.  For  here,  as  we  learn  by  the  aid  of  philology,  dwelt  the  Aryans 
even  before  the  light  of  history  had  come  to  dispel  the  mists  of  an- 
tiquity. Two  or  three  thousand  years  later  it  was  overrun  by  Cyrus 
and  added  to  the  dominion  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  In  the  V 
Century  a.d.,  Tartar  tribes  conquered  it;  and  in  the  following  cen- 
tury Turks  and  Persians  divided  it  between  them.  Still  later  it 
was  again  overrun  by  the  Arabs,  who,  sword  in  hand,  converted  the 
vanquished  to  the  creed  of  Islam.  When  a few  more  centuries  had 
rolled  away  the  Mongol  hordes  of  Genghis  Khan  swept  over  it; 
and  once  again  it  suffered  desolation  under  the  iron  hand  of  Tamer- 
lane, “Scourge  of  Asia.”  But  in  spite  of  these  waves  of  conquest 
and  the  minor  struggles  with  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  that 
left  their  impress  on  the  country,  each  of  the  several  classes  of 
Turkoman  rugs,  including  even  those  made  two  centuries  ago,  show 
a remarkable  conformity  to  definite  types,  however  much  may  be 
their  modification  in  small  detail.  Their  nap  is  invariably  short;  in 
all  of  them  some  shade  of  dark  red  is  the  predominating  colour;  and  in 
most  of  them  some  form  of  an  octagon  appears.  They  are,  moreover, 
the  best  woven  and  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Central  Asiatic  rugs. 

Though  the  Turko-Chinese  rugs  are  made  in  places  subject  to 
the  influence  of  Turkomans  and  far  removed  from  the  culture  of 
Chinese,  they  are  unlike  the  rugs  of  the  former  and  resemble  those  of 
the  latter.  Not  improbably  this  is  because  Tamerlane  had  gathered 
at  Samarkand  noted  artists  and  artisans  from  China,  whose  influence 
continued  long  after  his  death.  And  as  traditional  patterns  have 
been  transmitted  for  centuries,  there  is  little  doubt  that  some  of  the 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


235 


modern  mgs,  even  though  falling  far  short  of  the  standard  of  their 
early  prototypes,  more  closely  resemble  them  than  they  do  any  other 
rugs  of  Asia.  In  these  pieces  Turkoman  simplicity  of  geometric 
figures  is  replaced  by  an  elaboration  of  conventional  floral  forms  and 
by  designs  associated  with  early  philosophies;  sobriety  of  colour 
yields  to  the  bright  and  even  gaudy  tones  not  infrequent  in  modern 
textile  fabrics. 

The  Beluchistans,  which  are  regarded  as  a subgroup  of  the  Cen- 
tral Asiatic  rugs,  show  a closer  relationship  to  the  Turkoman  rugs  than 
to  any  others.  A few  of  them  have  octagonal  patterns  suggestive  of 
Bokharas,  and  all  have  the  long  webs  at  the  ends  and  the  heavy 
goat’s  hair  selvage  at  the  sides  peculiar  to  Afghans  and  Tekkes. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  patterns  both  of  field  and  border 
resemble  Persian  workmanship ; so  that  placing  these  rugs  in  the 
same  group  with  the  Turkoman  and  Turko-Chinese  rugs,  which  are 
not  made  in  an  adjoining  territory,  is  slightly  arbitrary. 

Royal  Bokharas.  — The  best  known  district  in  Turkestan  is 
the  Khanate  of  Bokhara,  which  extends  from  the  offshoots  of  the 
lofty  Pamir  mountains  in  the  east  to  the  desolate  sandy  plains  be- 
yond the  Amu  Daria,  or  Oxus  river,  on  the  west.  Situated  in  its 
northern  half  and  near  the  centre  of  a fertile  valley  is  its  capital, 
Bokhara,  “The  Noble.”  Though  noted  for  its  cruelty,  it  was 
once  the  intellectual  centre  of  Asia,  and  still  possesses  nearly  a hun- 
dred schools  and  innumerable  mosques.  These  and  its  bazaars 
are  almost  all  that  remain  of  the  splendour  of  those  days  when  the 
great  caravans  that  came  from  China,  India,  Persia,  and  Russia 
made  it  one  of  the  great  marts  of  the  East. 

On  account  of  its  commercial  importance,  the  wild  tribes  of  the 
Kirghiz  steppes,  the  Turkomans  from  Kizil  Kum,*  the  Afghans  who 
dwell  north  of  the  Paropamisus  range,  and  the  fierce  Tekkes  and 
Yomuds  from  the  west,  came  and  bartered  their  rugs  for  other  neces- 
sities. Many  of  these  rugs  were  taken  in  caravans,  that  often  num- 
bered several  thousand  camels,  and  sold  in  the  Russian  market  places 
of  Astrakan,  Orenburg,  or  Nijni  Novgorod.  Since  they  came  from 
the  same  place,  the  term  Bokhara  was  often  applied  to  each  of  the 
different  classes.  Thus  we  hear  of  Royal  Bokharas,  Princess  Bok- 
haras, Tekke  Bokharas,  Yomud  Bokharas,  and  Khiva  Bokharas. 

Of  these  five  classes  the  Royal  Bokharas,  as  a rule,  not  only  are 
* “Desert  of  Red  Sands.” 


236 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


the  best  woven,  but  are  made  of  the  finest  material;  even  the  warp 
of  many  of  them  is  of  soft,  silky  white  wool.  The  old  rugs  were  made 
in  the  city  and  suburbs  of  Bokhara,  where  now  only  a few 
pieces  are  made.  Both  old  and  new  are  found  only  as  sedjadehs. 
They  have  two  well-known  patterns,  one  of  which  consists  of  an 
octagon  surrounding  a quartered  hexagon.  Of  these  quarters,  which 
are  either  plain  or  contain  a small  triangle  of  contrasting  colour, 
a pair  that  are  opposite  are  always  white  or  cream  coloured,  and  the 
other  pair  are  of  some  shade  of  red.  Small  triangular  figures  are  in- 
variably seen  above  and  below  the  hexagons,  as  well  as  small  dia- 
mond, oval,  or  spear-shaped  figures  at  each  end  of  the  major  axis. 
In  the  other  pattern  the  contour  of  the  octagon  is  rounder;  and  the 
hexagon  is  replaced  by  an  eight-pointed  star,  at  the  centre  of  which 
is  a diamond  containing  a rectangle  or  occasionally  a Greek  cross. 
Projecting  into  the  four  corners  from  the  star  are  small  designs,  that 
careful  observation  of  a large  number  in  many  different  kinds  of 
rugs  shows  to  be  leaf  forms.  Between  the  diagonally  placed  octa- 
gons of  both  these  types  are  stars  or  diamond-shaped  figures,  that 
are  usually  of  the  same  design  regardless  of  the  shape  of  the  octagon. 
In  large  rugs  the  centres  of  the  octagons  are  generally  joined  by 
straight  lines  of  dark  blue  colour. 

It  is  uncertain  why  the  term  Royal  has  been  applied  to  this 
class  of  Bokharas,  but  it  is  eminently  befitting  the  old  well-woven, 
velvet-like  pieces.  A few  have  small  patches  of  pink  or  ruby  coloured 
silk;  and  all  have  a prevailing  tone  of  red  diversified  by  deep  blues 
and  touches  of  lighter  red  and  ivory,  that  convey  an  idea  of  opu- 
lence and  dignity  worthy  of  a king. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours , principally  dark  red,  with  minor 
quantities  of  blue,  pink  or  orange,  and  ivory.  Knot,  Sehna.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  eight  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  sixteen  to 
twenty-four.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the 
warp  is  concealed  at  back  and  the  weft  is  almost  hidden.  Warp, 
fine  white  wool ; each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally 
prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of  fine  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  fine  wool,  or 
occasionally  silk,  clipped  short.  Border,  three  stripes  divided  by 
smaller  coloured  lines.  Sides,  a blue  double  overcasting.  Both 
ends,  a narrow  web  and  short  warp  fringe.  Texture,  firm.  Weave 
at  back  is  of  fine  grain.  Usual  length,  four  to  ten  feet.  Usual  width, 
three  fifths  to  four  fifths  length. 


Plate  53.  Turkoman  Rug  with  Katchli  Pattern 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


237 


Princess  Bokharas.  — The  rugs  known  as  Princess  Bokharas 
are  woven  by  the  Mohammedan  tribes  who  dwell  in  parts  of  the 
Khanate  of  Bokhara.  They  are  nearly  square  and  the  field  is  divided 
into  four  equal  sections  by  perpendicular  and  horizontal  bands. 
Because  of  this  pattern  they  are  called  “Katchlis,”  a word  derived 
from  the  Armenian  language  signifying  “like  a cross.”  The  bands 
generally  have  designs  that  are  co-ordinate  with  those  in  part  of  the 
border;  but  not  infrequently  the  designs  of  the  horizontal  band  differ 
from  those  of  the  perpendicular  one,  and  in  a few  rare  instances  con- 
sist of  an  octagonal  figure.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  well- 
known  Y-shaped  motive  characteristic  of  the  field  and  the  border 
is  intended  to  represent  the  tree  of  life,  but  some  native  weavers 
suggest  a different  interpretation.  To  them  the  whole  rug  symbol- 
ises a mosque;  the  perpendicular  arm  of  the  cross  is  the  entrance; 
the  Y-shaped  designs  are  benches;  and  the  broad  diagonal  lines  with 
serrated  edges  in  the  borders  are  groves  of  trees  surrounding  the 
mosque.  A very  large  percentage  of  these  pieces  are  namazliks.  One 
of  their  peculiarities  is  the  position  of  their  unobtrusive  tent-shaped 
prayer  arch,  which  is  in  a panel  entirely  within  their  upper  border. 

Compared  with  Royal  Bokharas  their  nap  is  rarely  of  as  fine 
quality,  the  warp  is  usually  of  brown  instead  of  cream  white  wool, 
and  the  weave  is  coarser.  Also,  the  tones  of  colour  are  more  sombre, 
and  of  browner  shades;  but  in  rare  old  pieces  the  rich  mahogany 
and  bronze  hues  of  the  ground,  on  which  are  represented  small 
designs  in  shades  of  cream  and  dark  blue,  are  exceedingly  rich  and 
pleasing.  Unfortunately,  within  recent  years  large  numbers  of  this 
class  have  been  made  solely  for  commercial  purposes,  and  lack  the 
finer  qualities  of  their  prototypes. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red  or  brown, 
with  minor  quantities  of  dark  blue  and  ivory.  Knot,  Sehna.  Knots 
to  inch  horizontally  eight  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  fourteen  to 
eighteen.  The  rows  of  knots  are  firmly  pressed  down,  so  that  the 
warp  is  concealed  at  back  and  the  weft  partly  hidden.  Warp, 
brown  wool  or  goat’s  hair;  each  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  en- 
circled by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back.  Weft,  wool,  of 
fine  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every  two 
rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  short  or  medium  length;  occasionally 
some  goat’s  hair  is  used.  Border,  three  stripes,  separated  by  narrow 
lines.  Sides,  a double  overcasting  or  a double  goat’s  hair  selvage  of 
three  cords.  Both  ends,  a web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  stout. 


238 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Weave  at  back  is  of  moderately  fine  grain.  Usual  length , four  and 
one  half  to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  four  fifths  length. 

Tekkes.  — A little  over  two  centuries  ago  there  lived  on  the 
peninsula  of  Mangishlar,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
an  almost  unknown  tribe  called  the  “Tekke,”  a term  which  is  said 
to  denote  a mountain  goat,  and  was  applied  on  account  of  the  head- 
long pace  at  which  the  men  rode  over  rough  mountain  sides.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  XVIII  Century  they  packed  their  khibitkas ,* 
and  after  moving  southward  to  escape  from  the  attacks  of  a more 
powerful  tribe,  they  met  the  Yomuds  in  the  southwestern  corner 
of  Turkestan  and  robbed  them  of  their  lands.  Further  eastward 
they  snatched  the  fertile  oasis  of  Ak-kal  from  some  Kurds,  whose 
ancestors  a Shah  of  Persia  had  located  there  in  earlier  times  to 
protect  his  kingdom  from  fierce  northern  tribes.  By  irrigating  and 
cultivating  the  soil,  they  prospered  and  increased  rapidly  in  popu- 
lation, until,  about  1830,  they  numbered  one  hundred  thousand. 
One  fourth  of  them  then  moved  eastward;  and  after  settling  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tajand,  not  far  from  the  Persian  town  of  Saraks, 
they  attacked  the  inhabitants  of  Merv  and  captured  the  city.  Grow- 
ing thus  to  be  a powerful  people,  they  occupied  much  of  the  country 
between  Persia  and  the  Amu  Daria. 

Ever  restless,  they  were  constantly  looking  for  weaker  foes  on 
whom  to  fall;  and  when  a leader  would  announce  an  intended  raid, 
hundreds  or  even  thousands  would  meet  at  the  appointed  rendez- 
vous prepared  to  blindly  follow  him.  Sometimes  it  was  through  the 
passes  that  looked  down  into  the  fertile  valleys  of  Northern  Persia. 
Stealthily  creeping  through  them  they  would  fall  unexpectedly  upon 
an  unprotected  village  and  dash  away  with  young  women  and  chil- 
dren. If  pursued,  they  would  stab  their  captives,  and  if  necessary, 
ride  more  than  one  hundred  miles  a day  in  flight.  At  other  times, 
they  would  attack  caravans  crossing  the  deserts  and  carry  away 
both  camels  and  wares. 

Their  raids,  however,  were  not  viewed  with  complacence  by  the 
Russians,  who  had  been  steadily  advancing  on  the  land  lying  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Amu  Daria,  and  whose  armies  the  Tekkes  har- 
assed. At  length  in  January,  1881,  came  the  final  death  struggle 
in  the  memorable  attack  on  the  fortress  of  Geok  Teppe,  where 
thirty-three  thousand  tribesmen  and  seven  thousand  women  and 
* A tent  in  which  an  average  of  five  people  live. 


Plate  54.  Turkoman  Prayer  Rug,  which  according  to  A.  Bogolubow  has 
the  Typical  Pinde  Pattern 


CENTRAL  ASTATIC  RUGS 


239 


children  had  taken  refuge.  With  the  fall  of  that  stronghold  and  the 
terrible  punishment  that  followed,  the  power  of  the  Tekkes  was 
completely  crushed;  and  a people  whose  ancestors  for  countless 
centuries  had  roamed  the  desert,  recognising  no  master,  yielded 
finally  to  the  advance  of  civilisation. 

These  were  the  people  whose  wives  and  daughters  wove  the  rugs 
generally  known  as  Tekke  Bokharas,  of  which  large  numbers  with 
excellent  weave  and  sterling  dyes  can  still  be  found.  As  few  of  them 
were  designed  for  mosques  or  palaces,  it  is  very  unusual  to  find 
pieces  over  one  hundred  years  old,  and  even  these  are  rare.  Indeed, 
any  that  are  now  forty  years  old  should  possess  great  interest,  as 
they  were  woven  at  a time  when  the  Tekkes  were  still  a fierce  race. 
Very  many  have  the  Katchli  pattern.  The  prayer  arch,  which  is 
similar  to  that  of  Princess  Bokharas,  is  in  a panel  exterior  to  the  field 
and  within  the  border.  Not  infrequently  there  are  three  arches  in 
the  same  horizontal  panel,  which,  as  a rule,  is  above  the  field,  but 
occasionally  below  it.  In  a great  many  of  these  rugs  the  three-leaf 
clover  is  found  in  some  part  of  the  field;  and  in  the  band  of  pile 
that  extends  beyond  the  border  at  one  end  are  usually  small  con- 
ventionalised bushes  with  white  and  yellow  flowers.  The  pattern 
shown  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  4 (opp.  Page  250),  appears  almost  invariably 
in  the  outer  stripe. 

There  are  other  types,  into  one  of  which  it  would  seem  as  if  the 
very  spirit  of  the  desert  had  crept.  Their  dark  ground  colours  are 
brightened  by  lighter  tones  that  give  an  effect  of  strange  yet  not 
inharmonious  beauty.  A few  would  seem  to  speak  of  the  early 
Zoroastrian  faith,  for  in  their  fields  are  designs  like  stars  with  efful- 
gent rays  that  suggest  the  burning  altars  of  fire  worshippers. 

The  shape  or  some  peculiarity  of  the  rug  indicates  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  intended.  For  instance,  the  rugs  which  were  made 
for  doors  of  the  khibitkas  have  at  the  upper  end  a selvage  with 
the  web  turned  back  and  hemmed,  and  at  each  corner  a heavy  braided 
cord  of  about  two  feet  in  length,  by  which  they  were  suspended. 
Other  pieces  have  webs  at  both  ends.  Many  beautiful  pieces  are 
made  for  use  on  horses  or  camels.  Those  intended  for  camels  are  of 
oblong  shape  with  a field  usually  containing  large  octagons,  between 
which  are  smaller  octagons  similar  to  those  in  Royal  Bokharas. 

Tekkes  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Princess  Bokharas,  which 
they  resemble,  by  their  goat’s  hair  selvage  at  the  sides,  by  one  thread 
of  warp  to  each  knot  being  slightly  depressed  at  the  back,  and  by 


240 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


their  coarser  character.  There  is,  however,  a great  similarity  in  the 
colours,  though  in  the  Tekkes  tones  of  deep  plum  and  rich  red  are 
not  uncommon. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red,  brown,  or 
plum,  with  minor  quantities  of  dark  blue  and  ivory.  Knot,  Sehna. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  nine  to 
fourteen.  The  rows  of  knots  are  slightly  pressed  down,  but  the  warp 
shows  at  back.  Warp,  wool  or  goat’s  hair;  one  of  the  two  threads 
encircled  by  a knot  is  depressed  below  the  other  at  back.  Weft, 
wool  of  fine  or  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  or  occasionally  goat’s 
hair  of  short  or  medium  length.  Border,  three  stripes,  separated  by 
coloured  lines.  Sides,  a three-cord  double  goat’s  hair  selvage. 
Loicer  end,  a wide  coloured  web  and  long  warp  fringe.  Upper  end,  a 
braided  selvage  turned  back  and  hemmed,  or  occasionally  a wide 
coloured  web  and  long  warp  fringe.  Texture,  firm.  Weave  at  back 
of  moderately  fine  grain.  Length,  five  to  eight  feet.  Usual  width, 
three  fifths  to  four  fifths  length. 

Khivas.  — On  the  west  bank  of  the  Amu  Daria,  and  stretching 
for  two  hundred  miles  above  its  mouth,  is  the  plain  of  the  Khanate 
of  Khiva.  Most  of  the  people  live  in  khibitkas,  and  either  follow  a 
nomad’s  life  or  raise  from  the  alluvial  soil,  that  is  watered  by  innu- 
merable canals,  crops  of  cotton,  corn,  and  rice,  as  well  as  melons, 
peaches,  and  pomegranates.  A large  population,  also,  inhabits  the 
city  of  Khiva,  which  before  the  building  of  the  Siberian  railway,  was 
on  one  of  the  direct  highways  between  east  and  west.  Caravans 
of  nearly  two  thousand  camels  regularly  passed  through  it  en  route 
to  Orenburg  in  spring  and  to  Astrakhan  in  fall,  carrying  wares 
from  districts  farther  to  the  east  as  well  as  its  own  rugs  and  manu- 
factured articles. 

On  account  of  the  constant  intercourse  between  the  Khiva  and 
Bokhara  tribes,  their  woven  fabrics  show  a close  relationship  in 
patterns  and  colours;  yet  they  contain  important  differences.  Those 
made  by  the  Khiva  tribes  are  cruder,  and  reflect  the  effect  of  constant 
struggles  against  the  rigours  of  the  desert  and  the  fierce  Kirghiz  from 
the  steppes  to  the  north.  The  wool  is  also  coarser  and  longer,  and 
the  knots  are  much  fewer  to  the  inch.  Occasionally  geometric  as 
well  as  animal  designs  suggestive  of  Caucasian  influence  occur. 
Moreover,  the  brownish  threads  of  weft  that  separate  each  row  of 


COLOUR  PLATE  IX  — SAMARKAND  RUG 


Although  this  rug  is  an  excellent  example  of  that  class  generally 
known  as  Samarkands,  it  was  bought  in  Yarkand.  Undoubtedly  it 
was  woven  in  some  part  of  Turkestan  that  lies  between  these  two  cities; 
yet  with  the  exception  of  the  eight-pointed  stars  at  the  centre  of  the  upper 
and  lower  medallions  the  pattern  is  characteristic  of  Chinese  ornamen- 
tation. Surrounding  the  central  medallion,  on  a ground  of  rich  deep 
blue,  are  six  conventionalised  butterflies,  and  near  them  are  four  clusters 
of  pomegranates.  At  each  end  of  the  field  are  designs  that  suggest  the 
tree  of  life,  which  under  different  forms  appears  so  persistently  in  the 
woven  fabrics  of  the  East.  The  delicate  drawing  of  these  motives  is 
accentuated  by  the  formal  character  of  the  four  corners  and  by  the  broad 
border  of  well-known  stripes.  It  is  a piece  in  which  beauty  of  line  and 
colour  is  combined  with  unsolved  symbolism. 

Loaned  by  Mr.  Hulett  C.  Merritt 


SKJfl  aVLkA51kl!Lk&  — 7A  31!  l ft^OviOT) 


?.?»b  im\i  \o  atamyxa  $«aKa»xa  im  zs  §m  jl^vso^ak 
V,  \fU*'iV4*ioS>K3  .fc.i\^‘A~  D 1 Jtf  TO  %©  WJSO«$ 

•/•-.aiiVo  ck»J  a?-a&  ^avi'-.^  aaH  inAi  \o  tetjjq  oskov,  sw  ttawyw  ww 

'taqqjs  av  ■;  \o  axtapo  'ViV:  W>  •.  . •>’?.  b^tuioq-^v  • \o  wosiqsma  sift  M'm  $a\\ 
•«»mo  v.sn’y^O  \o  ostewsiomafo  ?.’v  jnaJYnq  :A\  ’vao^pX  hvs: 

qoab  AoV\  to  PiucoTg  » «o  nrds -w  aiVi  \mikrcwoYv«& 

v.  r;><Twfo  \wo\  vs»  ••'!.ai\*  -v»aw  Sr.v©  .v^V\t%Siiu'  W,Ab5\oHkm«go  :m  at© 

'■,:\\  te&w-ysz  ku\i  ?,sipmfo  a*w>  5>fo$\,  as\J  \o  $\om  ik  .^5»«»^.woq  \o 
vV'V.o';i^^!(\  o%  %;raaqq»  s«no\  $«a*ta%V5>  xalbms  AoH<w  l;p 

- •-'•*>•&>  aYnoVfofo  as\l  MtiA  u$&  \o  «tm4©\  .mwow 

...  . ' ■:•  ppinap  •\yso\as\i\o  ^atoamsb  • - : 

Tu?r  ;.y,i\  Vv  $M©a<S  ApVAps  ft-V  aaaVq  © A i\  .aaqhte,  st<MOsn\l\acw  \,  yaltm4 

. tt?Ao&Kt\g%  foaAoasm  Asas  foasu&moo  %*y  ’uyoios 
&Vra\L  .r)  >tevff\\  .\1IL  \$4  i}tj$vooJ. 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


241 


knots,  are  noticeable  at  the  back,  whereas  in  other  Turkoman  rugs 
the  weft  is  hardly  perceptible. 

Many  of  the  old  pieces  were  very  handsome,  as  is  shown  by  the 
following  description  of  an  antique  goat’s  hair  carpet  from  Khiva 
by  Dr.  Birdwood.*  “The  ground  is  of  madder  red,  decorated  with 
leaves  and  scrolls  and  lozenge-shaped  forms  in  red,  white,  and  orange, 
each  lozenge  being  defined  by  a deep  line  of  indigo  blue.  The  ends 
terminate  in  a fringe.  Professor  Vambery  says  that  these  rich  lus- 
trous carpets  are  made  entirely  by  the  nomad  women  about  Khiva, 
the  head  worker  tracing  out  the  design  in  the  desert  sand  and  handing 
out  to  her  companions  the  dyed  materials  of  different  colours  as 
required  in  the  progress  of  weaving.” 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red,  with  minor 
quantities  of  blue  and  ivory.  Knot,  Ghiordes  or  Sehna.  Knots  to 
inch  horizontal^  six  to  ten;  perpendicularly,  eight  to  fourteen.  The 
rows  of  knots  are  but  slightly  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  shows 
at  back.  Warp,  wool  or  goat’s  hair;  each  of  the  two  threads  encir- 
cled by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back.  Weft,  wool  of  medium 
or  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool  of  medium  length.  Border,  generally 
three  stripes.  Sides,  a double  selvage  of  two  or  three  cords,  which  is 
generally  of  goat’s  hair.  Both  ends,  a web,  one  or  more  rows  of  knots 
and  a warp  fringe.  Texture,  stout.  Usual  length,  four  and  one  half 
to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  three  fifths  to  three  quarters  length. 

Yomuds.  — When,  in  1718,  the  Yomuds  were  driven  by  the 
Tekkes  from  their  homes  in  the  well-watered  region  about  Kizil 
Arvat,  they  moved  to  a less  fertile  country  to  the  north  and  west. 
Though  now  numbering  about  one  hundred  thousand,  they  have 
few  villages;  and  regardless  of  the  dreary  sand  storms,  the  biting 
cold  of  winter,  or  the  terrible  heat  of  summer,  they  wander  with 
their  sheep  and  goats  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  more  favoured 
spots.  Sometimes  their  khibitkas  are  seen  along  the  border  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  as  far  south  as  Astrabad  in  Khorassan,  or  among  the 
sandy  trackless  wastes  of  Kara  Kum,  nearly  as  far  north  as  the 
Aral  Sea. 

Many  of  their  rugs  rival  the  Royal  Bokliaras  in  wealth  of  colour. 
The  prevailing  tone  of  the  field  is  usually  red  or  maroon,  but  is 
sometimes  rose,  plum,  or  dark  brown;  and  the  remaining  shades 
* In  “Industrial  Arts  of  India.” 


242 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


correspond  with  the  blue,  green,  brown,  and  white  of  Tekkes.  Con- 
trasted with  these  is  the  ivory  ground  of  the  border,  which,  as  a rule, 
has  a much  brighter  colour  than  the  field.  Furthermore,  the  pile 
of  the  old  pieces  has  a lustre  that  is  due  to  the  excellence  of  the  dyes 
and  the  thick  soft  wool. 

There  are  several  distinct  types,  of  which  only  one  is  well-known. 
Its  pattern  is  clearly  Turkoman,  though  the  lesser  designs  show 
that  there  has  been  frequent  intercourse  with  the  weavers  of  Cau- 
casia. Covering  the  field  of  these  pieces  are  regularly  placed  dia- 
mond-shaped figures  that  suggest  those  of  the  Royal  Bokharas, 
from  which  they  may  have  been  developed  to  the  almost  entire  ex- 
clusion of  the  octagon;  though  the  latter  appears  much  less  promi- 
nently in  the  centre  of  the  diamonds.  In  the  border  occurs  the  run- 
ning latch-hook,  the  barber-pole  stripe,  and  a geometrically  drawn 
vine.  The  webs  of  the  ends,  which  are  usually  red  and  striped,  are 
broad  and  have  a fringe  of  goat’s  hair,  sometimes  braided  into  rope- 
like tassels,  but  more  often  hanging  loose. 

The  saddle  bags  are  of  irregular  shape  resembling  a flat  walled 
tent,  and  contain  in  both  field  and  border  much  brighter  colour 
than  the  rugs.  Their  field  is  checkered  with  diamond-shaped  figures 
rich  in  ivory  colour  and  separated  from  each  other  by  diagonal 
barber-pole  stripes;  their  border  contains  the  running  latch- 
hook. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red  and  mahogany 
brown,  with  minor  quantities  of  blue,  green,  and  white.  Knot, 
generally  Selina,  occasionally  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally 
five  to  eight;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  ten.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  largely  concealed  at  back. 
Warp,  coarse  wool  or  goat’s  hair;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled 
by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back,  or  one  is  slightly  de- 
pressed below  the  other.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  diameter,  or  oc- 
casionally wool  mixed  with  goat’s  hair.  A thread  of  weft  crosses 
twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length. 
Border,  three  stripes.  Sides,  either  a two-cord  selvage  of  red  alter- 
nating with  blue  or  brown,  or  a goat’s  hair  double  selvage  of  three 
or  four  cords.  Both  ends,  a broad,  reddish  brown  web  through  which, 
as  a rule,  run  coloured  lines  or  several  narrow  stripes,  and  a long 
warp  fringe.  Texture,  stout.  Weave  at  back  is  moderately  coarse. 
Usual  length,  five  to  twelve  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  three 
quarters  length. 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


243 


Beshires.  — On  the  Amu  Daria  and  not  far  from  Afghanistan 
is  a small  district  from  which  the  rugs  known  as  Beshires  now  and 
then  find  their  way  to  this  country.  As  it  is  not  far  from  several 
routes  of  caravans,  these  rugs  show  a relationship  to  the  products 
of  other  Turkoman  tribes.  Their  colour  scheme  is  principally  the 
dark  red  and  brownish  tones  found  in  Bokharas,  Yomuds,  and 
Khivas.  The  ends,  too,  have  the  web  crossed  by  several  lines,  such 
as  blue,  green,  and  yellowish  brown,  that  are  usual  in  Afghans. 
The  patterns  sometimes  contain  a suggestion  of  the  geometric  figures 
of  the  Yomuds  and  some  Caucasian  pieces;  and  yet  they  have  a 
striking  character  of  their  own.  Not  infrequently  the  field  is  covered 
with  broad,  irregular  scrolls  or  foliate  forms,  unlike  anything  seen 
in  any  other  class  of  rugs.  Again  the  field  may  be  occupied  with 
a trellis  pattern,  which  divides  it  into  diamond-shaped  figures. 
Within  these  are  smaller  diamonds  surrounded  by  eight-pointed 
stars  and  quasi-floral  forms.  The  borders,  as  a rule,  are  narrow  and 
have  simple  designs  that  incline  to  the  geometric;  but  a few  are  of 
fair  width  and  are  ornamented  with  rosettes  and  conventionalised 
leaves.  In  namazliks,  which  are  rarely  seen,  the  prayer  arch  lies 
within  the  field.  Almost  all  of  this  class  found  in  this  country  are 
old  rugs;  and  on  account  of  their  rich,  harmonious  colours  and 
unobtrusive  yet  distinctive  patterns,  are  always  pleasing  and  inter- 
esting. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red  and  brown, 
with  minor  quantities  of  blue,  yellow,  and  white.  Knot,  Selina. 
Knots  to  inch  horizontally  seven  to  twelve;  perpendicularly,  seven 
to  twelve.  A half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as,  or  longer 
than,  wide.  The  rows  of  knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp 
is  almost  hidden  at  back.  Warp,  generally  goat’s  hair.  Each  of  the 
two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back,  or 
occasionally  one  is  slightly  depressed.  Weft,  wool  or  goat’s  hair  of 
medium  or  coarse  diameter.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between 
every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length.  Border, 
generally  three  stripes,  occasionally  only  one.  Sides,  a goat’s  hair 
selvage  of  two  to  four  cords.  Both  ends,  a wide  web,  crossed  with 
several  coloured  stripes.  Texture,  stout.  Weave,  coarse.  Length, 
four  to  twelve  feet.  Usual  width,  two  fifths  to  two  thirds  length. 

Afghans. — One  of  the  most  distinctive  classes  of  Turkoman  rugs 
is  known  in  this  country  both  as  Afghans  and  Khivas.  Both  of  these 


244 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


names  are  unfortunately  applied;  for  their  only  title  to  be  called 
the  latter  is  that  many  were  formerly  exported  from  the  bazaars 
of  Khiva,  and  that  they  slightly  resemble  the  rugs  of  that  city. 
Nor  are  they  strictly  Afghans,  since  they  come  from  the  territory  of 
mountain  ridges  and  fertile  valleys  that  stretches  from  the  Hindu 
Koosh  Mountains  northward  across  the  eastern  part  of  the  Khanate 
Bokhara,  and  are  made  by  the  tribesmen  of  both  countries.  In 
fact,  they  differ  considerably  from  the  rugs  of  Central  and  Southern 
Afghanistan,  and  bear  no  resemblance  to  those  of  floral  pattern 
woven  about  Herat. 

Within  the  territory  where  these  rugs  are  made  the  Aryan  and 
Teutonic  races  have  met  and  blended;  and  across  it  have  passed 
the  armies  of  the  greatest  conquerors  of  Asia.  Here  still  exist  some 
of  the  most  untamed  races  of  the  East,  feeding  their  flocks  on  lofty 
table-lands,  or  cultivating  patches  of  valleys,  through  which  flow 
icy  streams  to  form  the  Amu  Daria.  Here  the  rights  of  hospitality 
are  held  sacred;  but  wrongs  are  revenged  without  recourse  to  any 
tribunal. 

When  the  antecedents,  customs,  and  surroundings  of  the  people 
are  taken  into  consideration,  it  is  not  strange  that  their  rugs  should 
be  strong  and  firm  in  texture,  bold  in  design,  positive  and  striking 
in  colour.  Most  of  them  are  large  and  almost  square  in  shape,  though 
mats  are  not  uncommon.  The  traditional  pattern  consists  of  per- 
pendicular rows,  usually  three  in  number,  of  large  octagons,  that 
are  almost  in  contact.  Between  these  rows  are  much  smaller  diamond- 
shaped designs,  which  consist  in  some  pieces  of  a cluster  of  eight- 
pointed  stars,  and  in  others  of  a geometric  figure  that  is  occasionally 
fringed  with  hooks  and  contains  within  its  centre  an  eight-pointed 
star. 

With  a few  exceptions  the  octagons,  which  closely  resemble 
those  of  Royal  Bokharas,  are  symmetrical,  and  all  their  details  are 
drawn  as  regularly  as  if  the  rugs  were  factory  woven.  They  are  in- 
variably divided  into  quarters  which  usually  are  marked  with  a small 
figure  like  a three-leaf  clover.  The  field  contains  but  few  adventi- 
tious designs  and  they  are  rarely  animal,  as  the  Afghans  are  Sunni 
Mohammedans.  One  of  the  most  common  of  these  designs,  which 
appears  also  in  the  Tekkes  and  Yomuds,  is  probably  intended  to 
represent  part  of  the  headstall  of  camel  trappings.  The  pattern  of 
the  border  conforms  to  that  of  the  field,  but  frequently  has  crudely 
drawn  floral  forms  and  a conventionalised  vine.  The  sides  have 


Plate  55.  Turkoman  Rug  ox-  the  Salor  Tribes 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


245 


an  added  selvage  of  brown  goat’s  hair;  and  the  ends  are  finished 
with  reddish  brown  webs,  from  which  hang  loose  fringes  of  dark 
wool  or  goat’s  hair. 

As  characteristic  as  the  large  bold  octagons  are  the  colours, 
which  however  subdued  are  invariably  of  rich  hues.  Those  of  the 
field  consist  of  dark  red,  maroon,  or  reddish  brown.  The  quarters 
of  the  octagon  are  of  a deep  blue  alternating  with  a red  that  is  lighter 
than  the  field.  In  some  pieces  this  red  is  blood  colour,  or  nearly  crim- 
son, standing  out  in  bold  relief  against  the  adjacent  blue  and  a field 
of  maroon.  Lines  of  green,  orange,  yellow,  and  white  often  appear 
in  the  body  of  the  rug;  lines  of  dark  blue  and  a checkered  pattern 
in  red  and  blue  are  frequent  in  the  red  webs  of  the  ends. 

Though  these  rugs  are,  as  a rule,  heavier  and  coarser  in  texture 
than  most  other  Turkoman  rugs,  the  old  pieces  have  a soft  plushy 
nap  of  fine  wool  and  goat’s  fleece,  as  well  as  richness  of  tone,  that 
is  very  attractive.  They  are  exceedingly  durable  and  moderate 
in  price. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  dark  red  and  mahogany 
b.rown,  with  minor  quantities  of  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  white. 
Knot,  generally  Selina,  occasionally  Ghiordes.  Knots  to  inch  hori- 
zontally five  to  eight;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  ten.  The  rows  of 
knots  are  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  is  largely  concealed  at 
back.  Warp,  coarse  wool  or  goat’s  hair;  each  thread  encircled  by  a 
knot  is  equally  prominent  at  back,  or  one  is  slightly  depressed  below 
the  other.  Weft,  wool,  of  medium  diameter,  or  occasionally  wool 
mixed  with  goat’s  hair.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice  between  every 
two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length.  Border,  three 
stripes.  Sides,  a goat’s  hair  double  selvage  of  three  or  four  cords. 
Both  ends,  a broad  web  of  reddish  brown  colour  through  which  run 
several  narrow  lines  or  several  narrow  stripes,  and  a long  fringe. 
Texture,  stout.  Weave  at  back  is  moderately  coarse.  Usual  length, 
five  to  twelve  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  three  quarters  length. 

Samarkands.  — A little  over  one  hundred  miles  east  of  Bokhara, 
and  on  the  southern  border  of  the  desert  of  Red  Sands,  the  river 
Zarafshan,  “Strewer  of  Gold,”  has  turned  a plain  of  yellow  loam 
into  an  oasis.  Forty-three  large  canals  bring  its  waters  to  fields  of 
cotton;  to  vineyards;  to  orchards  of  apple,  pear,  peach,  and  pome- 
granate; and  to  gardens  of  fragrant  flowers.  Here  is  Samarkand, 
“The  Mirror  of  the  World.”  Few  cities  as  old  remain  after  passing 


246 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


through  so  many  vicissitudes  of  fortune.  Alexander  forced  his  way 
through  its  gates,  the  Chinese  Empire  annexed  it,  and  finally 
Tamerlane  seized  and  made  it  the  magnificent  capital  of  one  third 
of  the  known  world.  His  tomb  and  other  remaining  monuments 
attest  the  grandeur  of  that  time  when  there  was  fostered  here  the 
art,  the  luxury,  and  the  splendour  of  the  East. 

The  rugs  known  as  Samarkands  are  woven  in  a district  somewhat 
eastward  from  the  city  and  are  often  called  “Malgarans.”  They  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  the  magnificent  carpets  that  adorned  the 
palaces  and  mosques  of  the  capital  of  Tamerlane;  yet  they  possess 
a special  interest,  as  in  them  are  combined  features  derived  from  both 
Eastern  and  Western  Asia.  Either  because  this  city,  known  as  Sa- 
mo-Kien,  was  once  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  or  as  is  more  probable, 
because  it  is  on  one  of  the  great  highways  of  caravan  travel  between 
China  and  Western  Asia,  the  Chinese  element  is  particularly  notice- 
able. It  appears  in  the  colours  that  are  in  strong  contrast;  in  the 
general  pattern  that  shows  little  affinity  for  those  of  Persian  or 
West  Asian  rugs;  and  even  in  the  weave,  in  which  silk  is  occasionally 
mixed  with  the  wool  of  both  warp  and  pile. 

The  ground  colour  of  the  field  is  usually  some  shade  of  red  or 
madder,  with  blue  and  yellow  appearing  conspicuously  in  the  prin- 
cipal designs  and  border  stripes.  Or  again,  the  field  may  be  blue, 
soft  brown,  gray,  or  tan,  with  which  the  colours  of  the  designs  and 
borders,  that  may  contain  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  invariably  appear 
in  strong  contrast. 

Few  rugs  have  a more  noticeable  pattern,  which  consists  princi- 
pally of  rounded  medallions.  If  there  be  but  one,  it  is  in  the  centre; 
and  if  there  be  many,  one  is  at  each  corner.  They  are  usually  orna- 
mented with  Chinese  scrolls  or  some  geometric  design,  as  an  eight- 
pointed  star;  but  dragons,  birds,  or  fishes  are  not  uncommon. 
Occasionally,  also,  flowers  of  Persian  design,  with  eight  rounded 
petals,  appear  in  the  medallion,  and  others  of  larger  size  cover  the 
field;  or  they  may  even  exclude  the  medallion  and  constitute  the 
principal  motive.  Some  simple  design  in  fretwork  gives  finish  to  the 
corners  of  the  field,  which  is  further  covered  with  Chinese  butter- 
flies, scrolls,  or  archaic  flower  forms.  The  borders  are  equally  dis- 
tinctive, and  unlike  those  of  Chinese  rugs  are  relatively  wide  and 
consist  of  several  stripes  surrounded  by  an  edging  of  uniform  colour. 
One  of  the  stripes  has  generally  a stiffly  undulating  vine;  another  a 
continuous  swastika  design;  and  a third  is  marked  with  frets,  the  bar- 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


247 


ber-pole  design,  or  a design  which  by  some  is  regarded  as  the  sacred 
Chinese  mountain  rising  from  the  waves.  In  most  pieces  warp  and 
weft  are  loosely  woven,  and  the  pile  is  of  a medium  grade  of  wool; 
but  in  very  old  pieces  the  wool  is  fine  and  lustrous. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  yellow. 
Knot,  Sehna.  Knots  to  inch  horizontally  six  to  eight;  perpendicularly, 
five  to  eight.  Each  half  knot,  as  it  appears  at  back,  is  as  long  as, 
or  longer  than,  wide.  The  rows  of  knots  are  not  firmly  pressed  down, 
so  that  the  warp  shows  at  back.  Warp,  generally  cotton,  occasionally 
wool;  one  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  doubled  under 
the  other.  Weft,  generally  cotton,  occasionally  wool,  of  coarse 
diameter  and  frequently  dyed.  A thread  of  weft  crosses  twice, 
between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  and  occasionally  three  times. 
Pile,  wool,  of  medium  length.  Border,  three  stripes  with  a pink 
edging.  Sides,  a red  or  pink  overcasting.  Loiver  end,  web  and  warp 
loops.  Upper  end,  web  and  warp  fringe.  Texture,  moderately  firm. 
Weave  at  back,  rather  coarse.  Length,  six  to  fourteen  feet.  Usual 
width,  one  half  to  three  fifths  length. 

Kashgars  and  Yarkands.  — Among  the  foothill  plains  at  the 
western  end  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  are  the  mud-walled  cities  of 
Kashgar  and  Yarkand,  that  were  ancient  even  in  the  days  when 
Marco  Polo  visited  there.  Situated  in  populous  and  fertile  districts, 
each  has  been  a city  of  political  and  industrial  importance;  but  on 
account  of  the  great  divides  that  separate  them  from  Western  Turke- 
stan, Persia,  and  India,  their  commerce  has  been  principally  with 
Thibet  and  China.  Thus  it  has  happened  that  only  within  recent 
years  have  any  of  their  textile  fabrics  reached  Europe  and  America, 
where  they  are  still  almost  unknown.  Yet  even  in  the  remote  past, 
these  cities  gained  a reputation  for  the  culture  of  silk  and  the  weaving 
of  carpets.  Moreover,  at  different  periods  they  were  centres  of 
luxury,  so  that  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  many  of  their  woven 
products  were  of  a high  order  of  excellence. 

These  rugs,  to  be  sure,  come  from  a district  lying  within  the  Chi- 
nese Empire;  but  it  is  so  remote  from  the  centres  where  the  well-known 
Chinese  rugs  have  been  and  are  woven,  and  is  so  much  nearer  to 
West  Turkestan  and  Afghanistan,  that  it  seems  best  to  place  them 
in  the  Central  Asiatic  group. 

As  a rule,  such  pieces  as  reach  this  country  show  crude  work- 
manship entirely  lacking  in  graceful  floral  patterns  or  artistic  draw- 


248 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


ing.  Octagonal  forms,  animals,  and  even  mythical  creatures  are 
often  distributed  over  the  fields  so  as  to  give  them  a decidedly 
Chinese  character.  The  narrow  border  stripes  ornamented  with  the 
swastika  and  fret  forms  are  often  similar  to  some  of  the  Samarkand 
stripes.  The  colours,  which  lack  the  subdued  richness  of  Persian 
pieces,  are  often  light;  but  they  occasionally  consist  largely  of  tones 
of  dark  blue  and  red  which  show  Turkoman  influences.  Most  of 
these  rugs  are  interesting  on  account  of  their  quaintness  and  indi- 
viduality ; but  few  compare  in  quality  of  material,  weave,  or  artistic 
finish  with  other  classes  of  this  group. 

Beluches  or  Beluchistans.  — “When  creating  the  world,  the 
Almighty  made  Beluchistan  out  of  the  refuse”  are  the  words  of  an 
old  proverb,  that  refers  to  a land  which  formerly  produced  some  of 
the  most  interesting  rugs  of  the  East.  In  fact,  the  thought  is  not 
surprising  when  the  desolate  character  of  the  country  is  considered; 
for  a sandy,  waterless  waste  stretches  over  the  greater  part,  and  only 
in  a corner  to  the  northeast  and  in  narrow  strips,  where  streams  from 
mountain  sides  water  small  valleys,  is  any  cultivation.  Across  this 
sparsely  settled  land  and  farther  westward  into  the  southeastern 
part  of  Persia,  untamed  tribes  of  Beluches  and  Brahoes  wander 
with  their  sheep,  goats,  and  large  numbers  of  camels.  Their  rugs, 
woven  on  crudely  made  looms,  bear  little  resemblance  to  the  more 
artistic  floral  pieces  of  the  Indian  weavers  to  the  east  or  to  those  of 
Kirman  to  the  west.  Nor  are  they  closely  related  to  the  Turkoman 
rugs  with  which  they  are  usually  grouped.  In  fact,  they  possess 
an  individuality  that  once  recognised  is  never  forgotten;  an  individ- 
uality due  to  the  isolated  condition  of  a country  that  is  protected 
from  its  nearest  neighbours  by  barriers  of  deserts  and  mountain  ridges, 
and  is  possessed  by  a still  unconquered  people.  To  these  circum- 
stances, also,  it  is  due  that  the  rugs  are  rarely  coloured  with  aniline 
dyes,  though  many  modern  pieces  have  been  chemically  washed  by 
dealers. 

One  of  the  most  distinguishing  features  of  Beluchistans  are  their 
tones  of  colour,  that  rarely  depart  from  traditional  usage.  They 
are  principally  a red  of  the  shade  of  madder,  a blue  with  purple  cast, 
and  a dark  brown  that  has  sometimes  a slight  olive  tinge,  particu- 
larly when  appearing  in  the  webs.  Frequently,  too,  dull  tones  of 
green  are  seen.  Contrasting  with  these  more  subdued  ground  colours 
is  almost  invariably  some  ivory  which  appears  as  small  detached 


Plate  5(i.  Yomud  Rug 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


249 


figures  in  part  of  the  border,  or  as  outlines  of  principal  designs. 
The  patterns  also  show  individuality  and  diversity.  Most  frequently 
they  are  geometric  and  represent  some  ill  defined  octagons  sug- 
gesting Turkoman  rugs.  Or  they  may  consist  of  a field  covered  with 
diagonal  bands,  with  large  lozenges,  or  medallions,  all  of  which  are 
decorated  profusely  with  latch-hooks.  Still  others  have  some  crudely 
drawn  flower  design,  as  the  Mina  Khani,  that  tells  of  Persian  influ- 
ences. 

A fair  proportion  have  the  prayer  pattern,  consisting  of  a large 
rectangular  shaped  mihrab,  which  is  as  high  as,  and  frequently  higher 
than,  wide.  The  borders,  as  a rule,  consist  of  three  or  four  stripes. 
The  main  stripe  is  geometric  and  in  the  guard  stripes  are  running 
latch-hooks  or  the  reciprocal  trefoil,  though  occasionally  they  are 
replaced  by  some  conventionalised  vine  or  ribbon  pattern. 

Proportionally  to  their  length  few  other  rugs  have  such  long 
webs  at  the  end,  though  they  are  sometimes  entirely  worn  away 
while  the  body  of  the  rug  is  still  serviceable.  They  are  usually 
coloured  in  harmony  with  the  colours  of  the  field,  and  are  marked 
with  embroidered  lines  or  simple  designs.  No  other  rugs  have  a 
surface  with  more  lustrous  sheen,  due  to  the  soft,  fine  wool  of 
the  pile,  which  in  old  pieces  is  short  and  closely  woven,  giving  a 
play  of  colours,  and  velvety  appearance  unsurpassed  by  any  other 
nomadic  rugs.  Many  of  the  choicest  pieces  of  Beluchistan  weave 
now  on  the  market  are  the  small  saddle  bags,  that  are  of  rich 
yet  subdued  colours,  and  possess  the  character  and  sheen  of  very 
old  rugs. 

Type  Characteristics.  Colours,  principally  red,  blue,  and  brown, 
with  minor  quantities  of  white.  Knot,  Selina.  Knots  to  inch  hori- 
zontally six  to  nine;  perpendicularly,  seven  to  ten.  The  rows  of  knots 
are  usually  pressed  down,  so  that  the  warp  does  not  show  at  back. 
Warp,  wool;  each  of  the  two  threads  encircled  by  a knot  is  equally 
prominent  at  back,  or  one  is  slightly  depressed  below  the  other. 
Weft,  of  coarse,  wiry  wool,  of  medium  diameter.  A thread  of  weft 
crosses  twice  between  every  two  rows  of  knots.  Pile,  wool,  and  oc- 
casionally camel’s  hair,  of  medium  length.  Border,  three  stripes. 
Sides,  a heavy  goat’s  hair  selvage  of  three  or  four  cords.  Both  ends, 
a broad  embroidered  web  with  warp  fringe.  Texture,  slightly  loose. 
Weave  at  back  is  moderately  coarse.  Usual  length,  four  and  one  half 
to  six  feet.  Usual  width,  two  thirds  to  three  quarters  length. 


250 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


BORDER  STRIPES 

The  border  stripes  of  the  Central  Asiatic  group  are  even  more 
geometric  than  the  Caucasian;  for  it  is  rarely  that  any  floral  forms 
are  seen  in  them,  though  they  may  appear  in  the  pile  that  extends 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  ends.  Even  the  vines  are  so  angular  as 
almost  to  lose  their  identity.  Octagonal  figures,  stars,  frets,  and  latch- 
hooks  are  common.  In  fact,  the  group  as  a whole,  shows  the  influence 
of  the  Caucasian  and  Chinese  groups  more  than  the  Persian. 

PRIMARY  STRIPES 

The  stripe  shown  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  1 (opp.  Page  250)  is  one  of  many 
found  in  the  rugs  known  as  Royal  Bokharas.  The  eight-pointed 
stars,  as  well  as  the  small  tent-like  designs,  which  may  have  been 
derived  from  the  headstalls  of  horses,  are  almost  always  found 
in  it. 

A well-known  stripe  of  Princess  Bokharas  corresponding  with 
the  pattern  of  the  field,  appears  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  2.  It  represents  a 
continuous  series  of  designs  shaped  like  a Y,  that  were  doubtless 
derived  from  forms  of  trees.  More  frequently  the  stripe  (Fig.  3) 
of  broad,  serrated  diagonal  lines,  that  originally  may  have  been 
intended  to  represent  foliage,  is  seen. 

Another  stripe  found  in  Princess  Bokharas  and  also  in  Tekkes 
and  Khivas  is  shown  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  4.  It  forcibly  suggests  the 
Chinese  fret.  Sometimes  it  is  used  as  a primary  but  more  frequently 
as  a secondary  stripe. 

In  Plate  L,  Fig.  5,  is  a stripe  frequently  seen  in  Tekkes,  which 
is  interesting  on  account  of  the  eight-pointed  stars  and  latch-hooks 
similar  to  those  of  Caucasian  rugs.  Without  doubt  this  is  only  one 
of  the  many  instances  illustrating  the  migration  of  designs. 

Plate  L,  Fig.  6 represents  a stripe  peculiar  to  Yomuds.  The 
running  vine  is  most  mechanically  drawn  and  fringed  with  latch- 
liooks,  which  are  a constant  feature  of  this  class. 

Another  Yomud  stripe  with  vine  in  which  serrations  take  the 
place  of  latch-hooks  is  shown  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  7.  Pendent  from  the 
vine  are  other  hooks  shaped  like  frets. 

Very  similar  to  an  old  Caucasian  stripe  is  the  one  represented 
in  Plate  L,  Fig.  8;  but  in  this  stripe  the  small  designs  are  drawn  so 
that  the  proportion  of  length  to  width  is  greater;  and  it  is  probable 


Plate  L.  Primary  and  Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Central  Asiatic  Rugs 


V 


CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


251 


that  they  were  copied  from  a wreath  of  leaves.  This  stripe  is  very 
commonly  seen  in  Beluchistans. 

Plate  L,  Fig.  9 represents  a mechanically  drawn  vine  found  in 
Beshires. 

Well-known  Afghan  stripes  are  shown  in  Plate  L,  Figs.  10  and  11. 

In  Plate  L,  Figs.  12  and  13  are  two  of  the  most  typical  and  inter- 
esting stripes  of  Samarkands  and  Yarkands.  The  first  is  supposed 
to  represent  the  sacred  mountain  of  Chinese  lore  rising  out  of  the 
waves.  The  second  is  a vine  with  leaves  and  flowers,  which  suggest 
Persian  influences. 

A stripe  with  simple  archaic  pattern  peculiar  to  Yarkands  is 
seen  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  14. 

SECONDARY  STRIPES 

In  Plate  L,  Fig.  15  (opp.  Page  250),  is  a well-known  form  of  a 
secondary  stripe  found  in  Royal  Bokharas. 

A stripe  seen  in  both  Princess  Bokharas  and  Tekkes  is  shown 
in  Plate  L,  Fig.  16.  It  bears  a slight  resemblance  to  some  conven- 
tionalised vines  found  in  other  groups. 

Stripes  of  running  latch-hooks  (Plate  K,  Fig.  20,  opp.  Page  230) 
are  frequently  found  in  Yomuds,  and  occasionally  in  Beluchistans. 

In  Beluchistans  the  reciprocal  trefoils,  so  well-known  in  Caucasian 
and  Persian  rugs,  are  very  frequently  used. 

The  pattern  of  a double  vine,  illustrated  in  Plate  L,  Fig.  17, 
is  a Beshire  stripe  that  suggests  a Persian  influence. 

In  Plate  L,  Fig.  18,  is  the  narrow  pear  stripe  that  appears  in  a 
very  large  number  of  Afghans  and  in  some  Kliivas. 

Two  well-known  stripes  that  belong  to  Samarkands  are  shown 
in  Plate  L,  Figs.  19  and  20.  The  pattern  of  the  conventionalised 
vine  speaks  of  Persian  origin,  and  the  swastikas  suggest  Chinese 
origin. 

In  Tekkes,  Yomuds,  Afghans,  and  Beluchistans  the  small  barber- 
pole  stripes  are  constantly  employed. 


252  TECHNICALITIES  IN  THE  WEAVE  OF  CENTRAL  ASIATIC  RUGS 


Tex- 

ture 

rajg  = j 
rampam  = m 
* 96001=  l 

- 

a- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

a 

- 

Weave 

9SJROO  = D 

ranipam=  ra 
9ng  = j 

a « 

0 

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a- 

a- 

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ranipam  = ra 
3noi=i 

a 

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a 

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Upper  End 

a3uuj=.[ 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

pammaq  puR 
qanq  panjn;=x 

£ 

6}onq  smoj  = nj 

a3i?Aps=  g 

qa^=M 

is 

is 

£ 

is 

& 

is 

£ 

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a3nuj=i!j 

pH 

Ph 

Ph 

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S'jouq  SMOJ=  VJ 

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£ 

£ 

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£ 

& 

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is 

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a3cAjas=  g 

m 

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C/3 

2 

C/3 

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0 

0 

Weft 

6}ouq  6AVOJ 

om}  ‘jaq  3ui 
-bsojo  earai;  *o^ 

cm 

0* 

<M 

CM 

cm 

CM 

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jjnq  6t^t?o3=3 

to 

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2 

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* 

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5 

it 

&t 

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¥ 

it 

Warp 

At  back 

jopun  pajqnop 
}ouq  aq^  03  x = H 

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-0 

-0 

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S 

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to 

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£ 

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it 

it 

* 

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Number  to 
inch 

XjJTqnaipuadjaj 

7-10 

O 

7 

8-11 

-f 

cm 

1 

CO 

CO 

T 

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8-14 

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6apjoiq<3=  0 

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O 

CENTRAL 

ASIATIC 

Afghan  

Beluchistan  . . . 

Beshire 

Princess  Bokhara  . 

Royal  Bokhara  . . 

Tekke  Bokhara 

Khiva 

Samarkand  . . . 

Yomud 

[ ] indicates  the  less  frequent  condition. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

INDIAN  RUGS 


JHROUGHOUT  parts  of  India  are  woven 
rugs  known  as  Dari,  which  are  unlike  the 
rugs  of  any  other  country.  They  are  pileless 
cotton  fabrics,  that  may  represent  an  indi- 
genous craft  old  as  the  Aryan  migrations. 
Their  designs  are  of  the  simplest  order; 
usually  no  more  than  plain  stripes  of  blue, 
red,  and  black,  or  only  blue  and  white 
modified  occasionally  by  simple  geometric  figures.  Furthermore, 
their  workmanship  is  poor,  so  that  they  possess  little  artistic  merit. 
Some  pieces  of  large  size  are  exported,  but  they  awaken  but  little 
interest  compared  with  other  kinds  of  rugs. 

The  weaving  of  pile  carpets  in  India,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  the  result  of  spontaneous  growth  or  to  have 
flourished  without  artificial  encouragement.  It  was  probably  in- 
troduced by  the  Saracens,  but  carpets  of  elaborate  design  and  work- 
manship were  not  made  till  the  reign  of  Shah  Akbar,  who  imported 
Persian  weavers.  Under  his  patronage  and  the  encouragement  of 
his  royal  successors,  the  manufacture  of  pieces  that  rivalled  those 
of  Persia  continued  for  a hundred  years,  but  after  the  death  of  Shah 
Jahan,  in  1658,  the  industry  began  to  decline.  Nevertheless,  for 
nearly  a hundred  years  longer  excellent  fabrics  were  produced  as 
the  result  of  the  system  that  was  maintained  in  all  the  provinces 
by  lesser  potentates.  This  system,  which  was  also  in  vogue  in  parts 
of  Persia,  is  described  by  Dr.  George  Birdwood  as  follows:  “The 
princes  and  great  nobles  and  wealthy  gentry,  who  are  the  chief 
patrons  of  these  grand  fabrics,  collect  together  in  their  own  houses 
and  palaces  all  who  gain  a reputation  for  special  skill  in  their  manu- 
facture. These  men  receive  a fixed  salary  and  daily  rations  and  are 
so  little  hurried  in  their  work  that  they  have  plenty  of  time  to  exe- 
cute private  orders  also.  Their  salaries  are  continued  even  when 
through  age  or  accident  they  are  past  work;  and  on  their  death  they 


254 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


pass  to  their  sons,  should  they  have  become  skilled  in  their  father’s 
art.  Upon  the  completion  of  any  extraordinary  work,  it  is  submitted 
to  the  patron;  and  some  honour  is  at  once  conferred  on  the  artist 
and  his  salary  increased.  It  is  under  such  conditions  that  the  best 
art  work  of  the  East  has  always  been  produced.” 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  Mogul  dominion  by  Nadir  Shah, 
in  1731,  the  production  of  carpets  rapidly  diminished  and  the  quality 
deteriorated.  This  was  due  to  several  causes.  With  the  conquests 
of  the  East  Indian  Company,  that  began  in  the  middle  of  the  XVIII 
Century,  and  the  extension  of  trade  into  every  district,  large  quan- 
tities of  antique  carpets  became  the  property  of  the  Company  or 
of  those  in  its  employ.  Many  of  them,  including  sumptuous  pieces 
that  had  adorned  the  palaces  of  the  descendants  of  Tamerlane, 
found  their  way  to  England.  Thus  were  removed  many  of  the  mas- 
terpieces that  had  been  an  inspiration  to  the  weavers.  Moreover, 
with  the  overthrow  of  native  princes  their  patronage  ceased;  and 
later,  when  looms  were  established  in  jails  for  the  employment  of 
convicts,  undesirable  competition  reduced  the  wages  of  free  labour. 
Still  more  pernicious  was  the  introduction  of  aniline  dyes,  and  the 
elimination  of  individual  taste  by  supplying  patterns,  that  were 
often  of  European  origin,  to  be  mechanically  copied.  Thus  it  fol- 
lowed that,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Robinson  and  of  others, 
for  nearly  half  a century,  to  resuscitate  the  art  and  restore  it  to  its 
former  condition,  weaving  in  India,  to-day,  rests  purely  on  a commer- 
cial basis ; and  the  workmanship  is  almost  as  mechanical  as  the  man- 
ufacture of  machine-made  carpets  in  Europe  or  America. 

Yet  to  the  cloud  hanging  over  the  weaving  of  India  is  a brighter 
lining.  European  companies  have  established  factories  where 
natives  are  employed  making  rugs  that  in  quality  equal  the  products 
of  Smyrna  and  Sultanabad.  Some  of  them,  indeed,  are  even  more 
firmly  woven  than  the  Persian  products  from  which  they  are  copied. 
In  many  of  the  towns,  also,  are  looms  where  the  weavers,  who  are 
mostly  boys,  enjoy  more  independence.  Moreover,  the  companies, 
realising  that  the  future  of  their  business  depends  on  the  quality 
of  the  fabrics,  are  largely  discarding  aniline  dyes.  It  is  now  possible, 
therefore,  to  obtain  Indian  rugs  of  excellent  workmanship  and  colours 
at  very  moderate  prices;  but  individuality,  representative  of  native 
character  and  temperament,  is  entirely  lacking;  and  in  its  place 
is  simply  a reproduction  of  Persian  or  European  patterns. 

Any  arrangement  of  these  rugs  in  subgroups  must  be  arbitrary. 


Plate 


o / . 


Beshire  Prayer  Kitg 


INDIAN  RUGS 


255 


as  similar  conditions  of  early  foreign  influence,  royal  patronage, 
and  the  jail  and  factory  systems,  have  prevailed  throughout  India. 
Yet  since  the  northern  part  has  been  more  directly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  courts  and  more  intimately  connected  with  Herat,  which 
seems  to  have  left  a strong  impress  on  the  weavings  of  all  the  sur- 
rounding country,  it  is  convenient  to  make  a distinction  between  the 
rugs  of  Northern  and  Southern  India. 

The  principal  rug-producing  centres  of  Northern  India  at  present 
are  Srinagar,  Amritsar,  Lahore,  Multan,  Allahabad,  Agra,  Mirz- 
apur,  Sindh,  Jubbulpur,  and  Jaipur. 

Srinagar.  — From  the  extreme  northern  part  of  India  come 
the  rugs  of  Kashmir,  which  are  often  named  after  the  capital  of  the 
province,  Srinagar,  the  “City  of  the  Sun.”  To  a large  extent,  they 
resemble  the  far  more  famous  shawls  that  were  woven  in  the  central 
valley,  where  winds  the  Jhelum,  that  some  believe  first  suggested 
the  pear  design.  The  pieces  woven  before  the  British  occupation 
of  India  were  of  excellent  quality  and  contained  delicate  colour 
schemes,  that  were  exceedingly  pleasing;  but  the  products  of  the 
last  half  century  show  deterioration.  The  colours  are  harsher,  the 
mechanical  drawing  of  the  patterns  show  European  influence,  and 
the  borders  resemble  too  closely  the  central  field  to  have  distinct 
characters.  Yet  many  of  them  are  now  dyed  with  vegetable  colours, 
and  are  stoutly  woven  with  the  soft  and  silky  wool  for  which  this 
district  is  renowned. 

Amritsar.  — On  account  of  famine  and  several  other  causes, 
a large  number  of  the  people  of  Kashmir  migrated  about  the  year 
1840.  Some  of  them  settled  at  Amritsar,  where  they  followed  their 
former  craft  of  making  shawls,  until  a change  of  fashion,  that  oc- 
curred about  the  year  1870,  deprived  many  of  their  occupation. 
These  turned  to  rug  weaving  and  thus  gave  an  impetus  to  that 
industry. 

Amritsar  is  now  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  city  of  the 
Punjab;  and  as  some  twenty  thousand  men  and  boys  are  employed 
at  the  looms,  it  is  one  of  the  leading  rug-producing  centres  of  India. 
Yet  before  the  exhibition  of  Indian  rugs  at  the  World’s  Fair  in  Chi- 
cago, in  1893,  there  had  not  been  any  demand  in  this  country  for 
its  rugs.  For  a long  period  it  has  been  the  home  of  weavers  who  found 
in  the  surrounding  mountains  and  valleys  the  best  of  wool,  but 


256 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


before  the  revival  of  the  industry  their  patterns  and  workmanship 
were  of  an  inferior  character.  Under  the  factory  system,  conducted 
by  American  and  English  firms,  has  been  a marked  improvement. 
Both  dyes  and  wool  are  excellent,  and  the  technique  of  weave  equals 
what  is  found  in  the  best  of  Persian  products.  To  the  square  inch 
are  frequently  two  hundred  Sehna  knots;  and  since  when  tying  a 
knot  one  thread  of  warp  is  doubled  under  the  other,  as  in  Bijars, 
and  the  threads  of  weft  are  pressed  down  very  firmly,  the  texture 
is  unusually  close.  The  nap  is  short;  the  sides  are  overcast;  and  as 
a rule,  the  lower  end  has  a cotton  web  and  the  upper  end  a web 
and  fringe.  The  moderate  prices  for  rugs  of  such  excellent  dyes  and 
workmanship  are  possible  only  on  account  of  the  wage  of  the  weaver, 
which  does  not  exceed  one  eighth  what  he  would  receive  in  this 
country. 

There  is  nothing,  however,  in  the  pattern  to  distinguish  these 
rugs  from  others;  for  in  the  drawing  the  greatest  latitude  is  exer- 
cised. It  may  be  a copy  of  a European  carpet,  or  some  Indian  or 
Iranian  antique.  Of  recent  years,  many  well-known  modern  Persian 
patterns  have  been  followed,  so  that  not  infrequently  these  pieces 
are  mistaken  for  the  products  of  Kermanshah  or  Sultanabad. 

Lahore.  — About  the  year  1580,  the  imperial  carpet  factory  of 
Shah  Akbar  was  established  at  Lahore,  the  capital  of  the  Punjab; 
where  during  the  reign  of  the  Mogul  princes  were  produced  many 
of  the  best  examples  of  Indian  weaving.  It  was  here  that,  in  1634, 
was  woven  the  well-known  carpet  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Gird- 
ler’s  Company  of  London.  Some  of  the  pieces  that  still  remain 
show  wonderful  delicacy  of  drawing  and  brilliancy  of  colouring. 
At  a much  later  period,  under  the  British  rule,  the  jail  system  of 
weaving  was  inaugurated,  and  rugs  were  made  with  both  woollen 
and  cotton  foundation.  Within  more  recent  years  the  factory  sys- 
tem followed;  and  on  account  of  the  nearness  of  Amritsar  to  the 
capital,  some  foreign  firms  have  weaving  establishments  in  both 
cities.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  there  should  be  a resemblance 
in  their  products,  which  is  seen  in  the  finish  of  sides  and  ends  and 
in  the  character  of  weaving,  which  usually  shows  one  thread  of  warp 
to  each  knot  doubled  under  the  other;  but  as  a rule  the  rugs  of 
Lahore  come  in  lighter  shades  and  are  woven  with  fewer  knots  to 
the  square  inch.  In  the  guards  of  the  border  often  appear  geometric 
figures;  but  the  patterns  in  other  respects  largely  follow  well-known 


INDIAN  RUGS 


257 


Persian  drawing,  though  leaf  and  flower  are  more  artistically  por- 
trayed and  the  designs  are  less  crowded. 

Multans.  — One  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  the  Punjab  is 
Multan,  which  during  the  vicissitudes  of  centuries  was  more  than 
once  captured  by  early  Mohammedan  conquerors  and  also  by 
Tamerlane.  Its  woven  fabrics  are  of  three  types:  the  Dari , which 
are  made  almost  exclusively  in  the  jails;  rugs  of  cotton  pile,  that 
have  been  made  only  within  the  last  sixty  years;  and  rugs  of  woollen 
pile,  that  have  been  produced  for  an  unknown  period.  As  the  looms 
on  which  they  are  made  are  unlike  those  of  other  districts,  and  the 
weavers  are  but  little  affected  by  external  influences,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  pile  carpets  not  only  display  uniqueness  of  pat- 
tern rarely  seen  in  other  Indian  pieces  but  also  possess  peculiarities 
of  weaving  as  well  as  of  material.  Usually  they  are  of  moderate 
size,  but  some  have  a breadth  of  twelve  feet.  There  are  seldom  more 
than  one  hundred  knots  to  the  square  inch  and  occasionally  only 
nine,  so  that  the  texture  is  coarse.  Not  infrequently  a single  knot 
encircles  four  threads  of  warp,  and  between  two  rows  of  knots  is  a 
single  thread  of  weft.  Almost  all  of  the  weavers  are  Mohammedans, 
who  have  a tradition  that  they  originally  came  from  Persia;  yet  their 
products  contain  few  of  the  Iranian  characteristics,  since  the  field 
is  usually  occupied  by  geometric  designs  or  crudely  drawn  floral 
patterns.  As  is  seldom  the  case  with  weavers  who  dwell  in  cities, 
these  dye  their  own  wool,  using  both  vegetable  and  aniline  dyes. 
The  principal  colours  are  bold  and  strongly  contrasting  tones  of 
red,  yellow,  and  blue.  Some  of  the  cotton  rugs,  however,  have  a 
single  colour  of  bluish  shade.  On  the  whole,  the  Multan  rugs  pos- 
sess great  individuality  but  little  artistic  merit. 

Agra.  — Almost  within  sight  of  the  minarets  of  the  Taj  Mahal 
are  prison  walls  where  convicts  of  Agra  ploddingly  weave.  In  1891, 
Dr.  John  Hurst  “saw  a long  row  of  prisoners  for  life,  who  were  chained 
to  each  other  by  the  feet,  engaged  in  weaving  a rug  for  Queen  Vic- 
toria, and  another  for  the  ex-Empress  Eugenie.”  Most  of  these  pieces 
are  of  cotton  foundation.  Each  thread  of  warp  is  equally  prominent 
at  the  back,  and  the  texture  is  looser  than  in  Amritsars.  The  nap 
is  short,  and  the  fibres  of  the  knots  blend  well  together.  Not  infre- 
quently the  fields  are  monotones  of  delicate  shades  of  blue,  green, 
or  fawn  colour.  As  a rule,  the  rugs  are  very  large  and  heavy;  and 


258 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


it  would  seem  that  this  has  always  been  the  case,  as  Mr.  Robinson 
suggested  that  the  reason  for  establishing  looms  at  this  place  was  the 
early  demand  for  carpets  too  large  to  be  imported  on  elephants. 

Allahabad.  — Situated  like  Benares  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges, 
and  next  to  it  the  most  sacred  city  of  India  to  the  faithful  Brahman, 
is  Allahabad,  capital  of  the  northwestern  provinces.  Its  geographic 
and  political  importance,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  each  year  half  a 
million  or  more  devotees  visit  it,  have  been  important  factors  in 
the  growth  of  its  industries,  one  of  which  is  the  weaving  of  rugs. 
Yet  the  numbers  produced  have  never  been  great.  As  a rule  they 
are  of  large  size,  and  are  loosely  woven  with  each  thread  of  warp 
equally  distinct  at  the  back.  Few  of  them  equal  the  best  examples 
of  the  Amritsar  looms. 

Mirzapur.  — When  it  is  considered  that  Mirzapur  is  the  centre 
of  a very  populous  cotton-producing  district  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ganges,  to  the  west  of  Benares,  and  is  the  seat  of  important  manu- 
factures, it  is  not  surprising  that  it  is  noted  for  its  carpets.  Those 
made  half  a century  ago  were  well  woven  and  dyed  with  fast  colours, 
but  largely  on  account  of  the  employment  of  convicts,  the  texture 
of  those  made  since  then  is  coarse  and  loose,  the  patterns  are  poor, 
the  colours  crude.  To  a limited  extent  a higher  grade  of  wool  has 
been  imported  as  a substitute  for  the  harsh  local  product,  but  the 
result  has  not  been  satisfactory.  These  rugs  accordingly  find  small 
favour  among  those  who  appreciate  artistic  qualities,  and  give  little 
satisfaction  where  durability  is  the  chief  requisite.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  within  recent  years  efforts  have  been  made  to 
raise  their  standard. 

Jubbulpur.  — Two  hundred  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Allahabad 
is  Jubbulpur,  capital  of  a district  of  over  half  a million  people. 
A century  ago  many  beautiful  rugs  were  woven  there;  but  since  the 
establishment  of  a School  of  Industry,  in  1850,  the  character  of  weav- 
ing has  retrograded  rather  than  advanced.  In  1880,  Dr.  Birdwood 
wrote  of  its  rugs  as  follows:  “The  foundation,  as  now  scamped  is 
quite  insufficient  to  carry  the  heavy  pile  which  is  a feature  of  this 
work;  and  is  moreover  so  short  in  the  staple  as  to  be  incapable  of 
bearing  the  tension  even  of  the  process  of  manufacture.  Jubbulpur 
carpets  often  reach  this  country  (England)  which  will  not  bear 


Plate  58.  Beshire  Rug 


INDIAN  RUGS 


259 


sweeping,  or  even  unpacking.  I know  of  two  which  were  shaken 
to  pieces  in  the  attempt  to  shake  the  dust  out  of  them  when  first 
unpacked.  The  designs  once  had  some  local  character,  but  have 
lost  it  during  the  last  four  or  five  years.”  Within  recent  years 
few  have  been  exported. 

Sindh.  — Formerly  good  rugs  were  woven  at  Sindh,  one  hundred 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Indus;  but  after  the  introduction  of 
aniline  dyes  their  colours,  as  well  as  patterns,  deteriorated.  In 
the  poorest  pieces  the  foundation  was  of  cotton  and  hemp,  and  cow 
hair  was  frequently  used  for  pile.  Very  few  of  them  have  been  im- 
ported into  this  country. 

Jaipur.  — In  the  palace  of  the  Maharajah  at  Jaipur,  the  great 
commercial  centre  of  Rajputana,  are  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
carpets  that  remain  in  India.  Native  appreciation  is  also  apparent 
in  the  present  workmanship  of  the  district  weavers.  There  is  nothing 
crass  or  inelegant  in  the  patterns  which  follow  the  pleasing  drawing 
of  Persian  rugs.  The  vine,  leaf,  and  flower,  trees,  and  animals  are 
faithfully  portrayed.  The  texture  of  weave  is  excellent. 

The  principal  rug-producing  centres  of  Southern  India  are 
Madras,  Marsulipatam,  Ellore,  Vellore,  and  Bangalore.  Rugs  are 
also  woven  in  Hyderabad,  Warangal,  and  Ayyampet  in  the  Tanjore 
district. 

Madras.  — Only  within  a comparatively  recent  period  have 
rugs  been  made  at  Madras,  the  early  stronghold  of  the  British  in 
South  India.  Over  half  a century  ago,  native  products,  woven 
in  the  interior  towns  of  the  Dekkan,  were  shipped  by  way  of  Coconada 
to  that  city  and  were  sometimes  known  as  Madras  rugs.  Two  of 
these  pieces,  which  were  sent  by  Mr.  Vincent  Robinson  to  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  differ  widely  in  harmony  of  colours,  beauty  of 
design,  and  delicacy  of  workmanship  from  the  present  products  of 
Madras.  Yet  the  latter  have  much  to  commend  them.  Some  are 
made  in  the  jail,  others  in  the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  and  others  in  the 
Anjuman  Industrial  School.  All  are  made  of  good  wool,  coloured 
with  vegetable  dyes.  Great  diversity  appears  in  the  patterns,  as 
some  are  copied  from  antique  carpets  represented  in  the  “Vienna 
Carpet  Book,”  others  are  copied  from  rugs  of  Northern  India,  Persia, 


260 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


and  Asia  Minor.  As  a rule,  the  fields  are  well  covered  with  repeti- 
tive designs,  that  give  them  the  appearance  of  factory -made  carpets. 

Marsulipatam.  — Two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north  of  Madras 
on  the  Coromandel  coast  is  the  city  of  Marsulipatam,  one  of  the 
earliest  of  the  British  settlements  in  India,  from  which  the  East 
India  Company  shipped  rugs  over  two  centuries  ago.  At  that  time 
they  were  among  the  finest  produced  in  that  country,  but  the  de- 
mands of  agents  for  articles  that  could  be  produced  as  cheaply  as 
possible  resulted  in  the  use  of  inferior  materials  and  in  poorer  work- 
manship. Most  of  the  dyes  are  aniline.  The  patterns,  that  once  were 
executed  with  marvelous  beauty  of  detail,  gave  way  to  crude  drawing 
until  “these  glorious  carpets  of  Marsulipatam  have  sunk  to  a mock- 
ery and  travesty  of  their  former  selves.”  * Few  of  them  are  any 
longer  imported  into  this  country. 

Ellore.  — Not  far  from  the  delta  of  the  Godavari  river  is  the 
town  of  Ellore,  where  a few  centuries  ago  some  Persians  settled, 
and  where  their  descendants,  faithful  to  early  tradition,  have  followed 
the  craft  of  weaving.  Here  in  former  times  were  produced  some  of 
the  best  rugs  in  Southern  India;  and  even  as  late  as  1883,  Mr.  E.  B. 
Havell  wrote  that  he  had  seen  pieces  woven  to  meet  special  orders 
which  were  equal  in  point  of  interest  and  material  to  the  old  speci- 
mens in  the  hands  of  connoisseurs  of  London  or  in  native  palaces. 
This  is  one  of  the  few  districts  in  Southern  India  where  the  industry 
exists  outside  of  jails.  In  the  town  and  surrounding  country  are 
about  four  hundred  looms  operated  by  some  three  thousand  people, 
who  are  Mohammedans. 

In  the  better  class  of  rugs,  in  which  vegetable  dyes  are  still  used, 
and  the  yarn  is  often  a native  product  of  wool  obtained  from  sheep 
of  the  uplands  and  spun  by  shepherds,  something  of  the  old  style 
of  craftsmanship  remains.  On  the  other  hand,  a very  large  percent- 
age of  the  rugs  which  are  intended  solely  for  export  trade  are  of 
an  inferior  order,  since  many  of  their  colours  are  obtained  from  ani- 
line, their  weaving  is  inferior,  and  their  patterns  are  ordinary.  Mr. 
Henry  T.  Harris,  in  his  report  on  the  Madras  Industrial  and  Art 
Exhibition,  1903,  said:  “The  exhibits  of  carpets  sent  from  Ellore 
were  poor  in  conception,  weave,  and  colour.  . . . The  patterns 
in  use  were  poor  and  often  modifications  of  cheap  Wilton,  Kidder- 

* Dr.  Birdwood. 


Plate  59.  Afghan  Rug 


INDIAN  RUGS 


261 


minster,  and  German  power  loom  designs.  Some  of  the  old  patterns 
are  still  with  the  weavers,  but  unfortunately  there  is  no  trade  de- 
mand for  this  fine  class  of  goods,  the  old  dyes  are  being  forgotten 
and  have  given  place  to  cheap  anilines  unskilfully  applied.” 

In  length,  the  rugs  are  from  a few  feet  to  twenty-four  feet.  The 
warp  is  of  cotton,  and  the  weft  is  sometimes  of  jute  or  hemp.  The 
pile  is  of  an  inferior  quality,  as  it  consists  largely  of  the  wool  taken 
from  a sheep  after  death,  known  as  “dead”  wool,  or  as  “Chunam” 
or  “limed”  wool,  since  it  is  necessary  to  treat  it  with  lime.  Unfor- 
tunately vegetable  dyes  do  not  produce  in  it  the  same  results  as  in 
“live”  wool;  and  since  the  scarcity  of  wool  in  Southern  India  fre- 
quently necessitates  its  use,  aniline  dyes  are  for  this  reason  alone 
often  employed.  The  number  of  knots  to  the  square  inch  is  rela- 
tively small.  The  patterns  show  great  diversity,  as  Persian  features 
predominate  in  the  older  rugs;  but  both  geometric  and  floral  designs 
are  employed  in  the  modern. 

Vellore.  — Almost  a hundred  miles  to  the  west  of  Madras 
is  the  town  of  Vellore,  where  native  weavers  once  produced  fine 
woollen  carpets  on  their  own  looms.  A few  specimens  of  these  old 
pieces  are  preserved  in  the  jail  to  serve  as  patterns  for  the  convicts, 
who  now  weave  the  only  rugs  of  the  district.  There  are  some  fifty 
looms;  and  as  the  largest  is  about  thirty  feet  wide,  almost  any  size 
of  rug  may  be  obtained.  The  product  rests  on  a commercial  basis 
and  depends  on  the  market  demands,  restricted  by  the  material 
available  and  the  limitations  of  the  weavers.  According  to  the  order, 
the  rugs  may  be  coloured  with  vegetable  or  aniline  dyes;  they  may 
have  warp  and  weft  of  cotton,  jute  or  hemp;  and  they  may  have 
from  six  to  sixteen  knots  to  the  inch  measured  horizontally  and  per- 
pendicularly. In  the  patterns,  which  are  as  promiscuous  as  those 
of  Ellore  and  often  similar,  the  Herati  design  with  a corresponding 
border  is  not  infrequently  used.  Recently  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  exclude  all  but  vegetable  dyes  and  improve  the  craftsmanship. 

Bangalore.  — The  principal  weaving  industry  in  the  Mysore 
state  is  centred  about  Bangalore,  a city  of  about  two  hundred  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  Its  founder,  Ilyder  Ali,  is  said  to  have  established 
looms  and  to  have  imported  the  first  weavers.  In  1908,  the  nine 
jail  looms,  of  which  the  largest  had  a length  of  nearly  thirty  feet, 
were  constantly  occupied  in  making  rugs  to  order.  The  number  of 


262 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


knots  to  the  square  inch  varied  greatly  according  to  the  quality 
required;  and  the  dyes  were  almost  entirely  aniline.  In  the  city 
are  employed  a much  larger  number  of  weavers,  who  clean  and  spin 
the  wool  produced  in  the  district,  as  well  as  dye  it  by  secret  processes, 
that  they  guard  most  carefully.  The  closeness  of  texture;  the  colour- 
ing by  aniline  or  vegetable  dyes;  and  the  use  of  cotton,  jute,  or  hemp, 
for  warp  and  weft,  are  regulated  by  the  requirements  of  the  trade, 
which  is  conducted  largely  by  two  or  three  English  firms. 

Hyderabad.  — Splendid  craftsmanship  was  once  displayed  in 
the  rugs  made  in  the  cities  of  Hyderabad  and  Warangal,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Hyderabad.  The  weave  was  exceedingly  fine,  and  the  col- 
ours were  brilliant  but  harmonious.  Now  few  rugs  are  produced 
in  these  cities,  and  they  have  poor  patterns  and  wretched  colours. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CHINESE  RUGS 


| HE  existence  of  Chinese  rugs  of  age  and  merit 
was  almost  unknown  to  the  Western  world 
until  the  close  of  the  last  century,  when  a 
few  pieces  reached  Europe,  where  they  aroused 
the  just  admiration  of  art  connoisseurs.  About 
the  beginning  of  this  century  a larger  number, 
which  were  obtained  during  the  Boxer  revo- 
lution by  reason  of  the  spoliation  of  homes, 
temples,  and  palaces,  that  never  before  had  been  entered  by  for- 
eigners, were  exported  to  this  country.  In  New  York  City,  between 
the  years  1908  and  1910,  some  of  them  were  sold  at  public  auctions 
for  prices  that  stimulated  collectors  in  China  to  search  for  more. 
But  they  have  proved  to  be  scarce  when  compared  with  other 
Oriental  rugs,  so  that,  as  yet,  the  general  public  are  only  slightly 
familiar  with  them. 

Moreover,  little  is  known  about  their  antecedents,  for  written 
records  are  exceedingly  meagre.  It  has  been  suggested  that  many 
were  made  in  Eastern  Turkestan  along  the  highways  that  extend  to 
Persia  and  India,  But  it  is  more  probable  that  they  were  woven  in 
Eastern  China,  where  /other  branches  of  art  reached  a remarkable 
development  under  the  patronage  of  wealthy  mandarins  and  the 
imperial  court.  Even  if  they  are  not  the  product  of  an  indigenous 
growth,  the  knowledge  of  weaving  may  easily  have  been  acquired 
from  Western  Asia;  since  it  was  not  unusual  several  centuries  ago 
to  import  weavers  from  one  country  to  another  to  instruct  native 
craftsmen.  Furthermore,  the  features  which  at  a glance  differen- 
tiate these  rugs  from  all  others,  proclaim  their  Chinese  character. 
The  diaper  patterns  that  cover  the  fields  of  some  of  them,  and 
the  foliate  and  floral  forms  that  appear  in  most  of  them,  not  only 
are  unlike  those  of  any  other  groups,  but  have  well-known  Chinese 
elements.  A more  distinctive  feature  are  the  colours,  which  are  rela- 
tively few.  Many  of  them,  as  tan,  yellow,  and  blue,  are  of  shades 


264 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


unlike  what  are  seen  in  other  rugs.  Even  more  distinctive  than  these 
are  the  reds,  which  never  have  the  primary  colours  found  in  other 
groups  but  resemble  the  tints  of  ripe  apricot,  peach,  pomegranate, 
and  persimmon.  Similar  tones  are  seen  in  old  Chinese  porcelain. 
The  geometric  and  floral  ornamentation  also  shows  relationship 
to  what  is  found  in  the  products  of  other  branches  of  Chinese  art. 
More  characteristic  still  are  the  small  designs  which  are  so  related 
to  the  philosophic  and  religious  thought  of  the  people  and  to  the 
industrial  and  social  life  that  their  Chinese  origin  is  unmistakable. 

Though  it  be  granted  that  nearly  all  were  woven  in  Eastern  China, 
it  is  not  possible  satisfactorily  to  assign  them  to  different  classes 
based  on  locality;  yet  without  doubt  important  distinctions,  ob- 
servable also  in  the  early  paintings  and  porcelains  and  resulting 
largely  from  differences  of  race  and  character  of  country,  exist  be- 
tween those  woven  in  Northern  China,  where  the  highest  appre- 
ciation of  art  existed,  and  those  woven  in  Southern  China.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  such  marked  local  distinctions  as  are  found 
in  other  groups  never  existed  in  Chinese  rugs.  Such  distinctions 
as  do  exist  relate  more  to  stages  in  development  of  the  textile  art, 
so  that  the  natural  classification  is  based  on  the  successive  periods 
when  they  were  woven. 

The  absence  of  written  and  traditional  history  regarding  the 
weaving  of  these  periods  is  by  no  means  an  insuperable  obstacle  to 
such  classification.  By  a careful  examination  of  large  numbers  of 
rugs,  it  is  possible  to  arrange  them  with  reasonable  accuracy  in 
series  that  represent  progressive  forms  of  ornamentation  and  design 
from  the  archaic  to  the  modern.  A most  important  aid  to  this  ar- 
rangement is  the  interdependence  so  conspicuous  in  the  several 
arts  of  China;  for  designs  of  innumerable  articles  with  well-estab- 
lished ages,  especially  of  the  ceramic  art,  have  been  copied  by  the 
weavers. 

Technical  peculiarities  in  weaving  are  also  an  aid  in  determining 
the  period  to  which  rugs  belong.  An  important  distinction,  for 
instance,  often  exists  in  the  manner  in  which  the  material  is  spun. 
If  pieces  of  yarn  be  taken  from  old  rugs  and  carefully  examined,  as 
they  are  untwisted,  the  simpler,  cruder  methods  of  spinning  practised 
in  former  days  are  often  apparent.  In  some  of  the  oldest  fabrics 
that  remain  the  wool  was  very  loosely  spun.  Irregularities  in  the 
size  of  yarn  are  also  more  noticeable  in  old  than  in  modern  pieces. 

More  important  often  in  determining  the  relative  age  of  a rug 


mm 

?*&&*& 


Plate  60.  Beluchistax  Prayer  Bug 


CHINESE  RUGS 


265 


than  either  design  or  technical  peculiarities  of  weaving,  is  the  shade 
of  colour;  for  however  excellent  were  the  original  dyes  and  whatever 
care  was  exercised  in  their  application,  they  slowly  changed  under  the 
mellowing  influence  of  time  to  tones  that  are  obtained  by  no  human 
process.  Furthermore,  as  is  the  case  with  porcelains,  certain  colours 
were  peculiar  to  certain  periods.  For  instance,  golden  browns  are 
seen  mostly  in  pieces  woven  before  the  middle  of  the  XVIII  Century, 
and  azure  blue  in  pieces  woven  before  the  XIX  Century.  Yellow 
with  a lemon  or  citron  cast  is  found  principally  in  pieces  woven  since 
the  beginning  of  the  XVIII  Century;  and  green  is  rarely  found  in 
pieces  woven  before  the  middle  of  the  XVIII  Century.  Aniline  dyes 
were  not  introduced  into  China  much  before  the  year  1870.  The 
time  when  a rug  was  woven  may  safely  be  regarded  as  not  more 
remote  than  the  period  when  the  ornamentation  and  designs  it  con- 
tains were  generally  adopted;  yet  it  may  be  much  more  recent, 
as  the  oldest  designs  were  copied  even  after  the  adoption  of  newer 
ones.  It  is  necessary,  then,  in  determining  the  age  of  a rug  to  con- 
sider not  only  the  evidence  of  the  spinning,  the  weaving  and  designs, 
but  also  the  evidence  of  colour. 

Though  Chinese  rugs  have  features  that  distinguish  them  from 
other  groups  and  divide  them  into  separate  classes;  they  also  have 
many  features  in  common.  All  are  woven  with  the  Selma  knot.  In 
all  but  the  earliest  rugs  the  warp  and  weft  are  of  cotton;  each 
thread  of  warp  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back;  and  the  weft, 
which  is  coarser  than  the  warp,  crosses  twice  between  two  rows  of 
knots.  The  nap  of  both  old  and  modern  rugs  is  almost  always  wool 
or  silk,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  jute  or  cotton.  The  sides  are  finished  by 
carrying  the  weft  around  the  outer  threads  of  warp,  but  never  so  as 
to  form  a wide  selvage.  The  lower  end,  as  a rule,  has  a very  narrow 
web  and  warp  loops;  and  the  upper  end  has  a narrow  web  and 
fringe.  Compared  with  other  groups  they  are  generally  more  loosely 
woven.  These  and  other  features  of  resemblance  and  of  distinction 
will  be  more  fully  noticed  in  considering  the  rugs  of  different  periods. 

In  rugs  of  this  group  are  constantly  seen  symbols  intimately 
associated  with  the  religious  and  philosophic  thought  of  China. 
One  of  them  is  the  Sacred  Mountain  rising  out  of  the  waves  of 
eternity,  which  is  an  old  Chinese  emblem,  though  more  frequently 
found  in  rugs  of  Samarkand  and  Yarkand.  Others  are  the  cloud- 
band  and  the  Joo-e.  There  are  also  mythical  creatures,  as  the  dragon, 
emblem  of  imperial  power;  the  Ky-lin,  partly  deer,  partly  unicorn; 


266 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


the  Fung-Kwang  or  phoenix;  and  the  lion-dog.  Still  other  symbolic 
and  decorative  designs  are  the  figure  Shou  and  the  stork,  emblems 
of  longevity;  the  bat  and  butterfly,  denoting  happiness;  the  conch, 
wheel  of  law,  and  the  two  fishes,  which  are  Buddhist  emblems;  and 
the  lyre  and  chess  board,  which  are  symbols  of  the  literati. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  rugs  were  woven  during  the  Sung  dy- 
nasty (960-1280  a.d.),  when  for  nearly  three  centuries  prosperity 
prevailed,  literature  and  art  flourished,  and  the  court  at  Hang  Chow 
was  maintained  with  imperial  splendour;  but  as  far  as  is  known, 
none  of  them  exist.  Nor  do  any  remain  that  may  have  been  woven 
during  the  Yuan  dynasty  (1280-1370)  distinguished  by  the  reign  of 
the  illustrious  Mongol  prince,  Kublai  Khan;  though  designs  appear- 
ing in  later  rugs  were  used  in  kindred  arts  of  these  and  preceding 
periods. 

Ming  Rugs.  — The  oldest  Chinese  rugs  that  remain  were  prob- 
ably woven  near  the  end  of  the  Ming  period,  or  during  the  first 
half  of  the  XVII  Century.  It  may  reasonably  be  assumed  that  they 
were  superior  in  quality  to  those  of  any  former  period,  since  during 
this  time  Persia  and  India  were  producing  their  greatest  woven  mas- 
terpieces; and  other  branches  of  Chinese  art  were  marked  by  an 
advance  over  the  work  that  had  preceded.  Yet,  on  the  whole,  it 
was  a period  of  ebb  in  the  splendid  accomplishments  of  intellectual 
and  artistic  effort  that  marked  the  Tang  and  Sung  dynasties. 

Such  pieces  as  exist  are  distinguished  by  careful  workmanship, 
archaic  designs,  and  sobriety  of  colour.  Most  of  the  rugs  were 
woven  with  warp  and  weft  of  cotton.  Some,  intended  principally 
for  wealthy  mandarins  or  the  imperial  court,  had  pile  of  silk  attached 
to  warp  and  weft  of  cotton;  and  others  were  made  entirely  of  silk. 
Fewer  in  number,  but  constituting  the  most  sumptuous  products  of 
the  Chinese  weavers’  art,  were  the  rugs  of  silk  woven  on  a web  of 
metal  threads. 

The  field  of  many  of  these  early  rugs  contained  all-over  patterns. 
Sometimes  the  repeat  designs  are  of  octagonal  shape  and  are  arranged 
in  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines,  so  as  to  leave  small  diamond- 
shaped spaces  between  diagonally  placed  octagons.  Within  these 
designs  are  often  the  emblems  of  happiness  or  longevity,  floral  mo- 
tives, and  sometimes  archaic  dragons.  In  another  well-known  pat- 
tern the  field  is  completely  covered  with  a swastika-fret  and  marked 
at  regular  intervals  with  diagonal  rows  of  bats,  emblematic  of  happi- 


CHINESE  RUGS 


267 


ness.  Occasionally  a field  of  plain  colour  contains  an  irregular 
arrangement  of  objects  used  for  sacrificial  or  sacred  purposes.  Again, 
it  may  be  covered  with  an  all-over  pattern  of  small  archaically  drawn 
dragons  resembling  some  of  the  earliest  designs  in  Chinese  decora- 
tive art,  or  of  most  conventionalised  floral  forms  on  mechanically 
drawn  stems. 

The  essential  feature,  however,  of  a large  number  of  these  rugs, 
and  one  that  probably  antedates  the  all-over  pattern,  is  a central 
medallion  surrounded  by  a field  that  is  either  plain,  that  is  marked 
with  a subdued  diaper  pattern,  or  contains  what  is  known  as  the 
“tiger  skin”  pattern,  consisting  of  waving  lines  repeated  throughout 
the  field.  The  medallions  may  be  either  octagonal  or,  as  is  more 
frequently  the  case,  rounded;  but  the  defining  lines  are  angular  and 
generally  represent  frets.  Sometimes  they  contain  archaic  dragons, 
which  are  so  conventionalised  in  a few  pieces  that  it  is  apparent 
that  from  them  originated  many  of  the  Chinese  scrolls.  In  other 
pieces,  the  shape  of  the  central  medallions  and  the  designs  which 
cover  them  suggest  most  forcibly  that  they  were  copied  from  old 
mirror  backs.  The  corners  of  the  fields  may  contain  simple  scrolls, 
but  more  frequently  they  correspond  closely  in  drawing  with  the 
central  medallions. 

The  borders  are  equally  typical.  They  are  invariably  narrow, 
and  generally  consist  of  a single  stripe  which  is  figured  and  surrounded 
with  a coloured  edging.  Probably  over  three  quarters  of  the  rugs  of 
this  period  have  a stripe  with  a pattern  of  swastika-frets.  Two  of 
these  stripes,  which  are  very  old  patterns,  are  illustrated  in  Plate  N, 
Figs.  1 and  2 (opp.  Page  274).  Occasionally  some  form  of  the  key 
pattern  appears  in  the  inner  stripe,  but  almost  all  Chinese  rugs 
that  have  two  border  stripes  with  figures  belong  to  a later  period. 
Many  of  the  oldest  borders  are  without  figured  stripes,  and  consist 
merely  of  one  or  more  stripes  of  plain  colour. 

The  few  colours  used  in  the  rugs  of  this  period  have  deep,  rich 
tones.  Undyed  dark  brown  or  blackish  wool  was  occasionally 
used  in  the  outer  edging  that  surrounded  the  field  or  in  the  narrow 
border  stripes;  but  more  frequently  the  same  colour  effect  was  ob- 
tained by  the  use  of  corrosive  dyes  that  in  time  have  often  eaten 
the  wool  almost  to  the  foundation  of  warp  and  weft.  Wools  dyed 
with  corrosive  browns  are  also  used  in  the  fields  and  enhance  the  effect 
of  designs  of  contrasting  colours,  which  stand  out  in  bold  relief. 
Other  colours,  as  soft  dull  yellow  and  shades  of  blue,  are  also  seen 


268 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


in  the  borders.  The  field  is  usually  richer.  In  some  pieces  it  is  a 
deep  red;  in  others  it  is  a soft  yellow,  golden  brown  or  yellowish 
tan,  that  shows  the  effect  of  time  on  what  were  originally  several 
shades  of  apricot.  Dark  and  light  blues,  sky  blue,  and  robin’s 
egg  blue,  as  well  as  jade  green  and  bottle  green,  are  also  found  in 
these  old  pieces.  In  the  metal  and  silk  rugs  the  glint  of  silver  even 
though  tarnished,  adds  lustre  to  colours  that  have  grown  deeper  and 
richer  with  age. 

Kang-hi.  — During  the  first  years  of  the  Tsing  dynasty,  that 
continued  from  1644  to  its  recent  overthrow,  the  country  was  so 
occupied  by  wars  waged  between  the  conquering  Manchoos  and  the 
still  resisting  followers  of  the  Ming  dynasty  that  art  was  nearly  at 
a standstill.  But  during  the  reign  of  the  illustrious  Kang-hi,  1662- 
1722,  art  revived  and  enjoyed  one  of  the  most  splendid  periods  of 
its  history.  There  is,  however,  a noticeable  difference  between  the 
rugs  that  belong  to  the  early  and  to  the  late  part  of  this  reign;  so  that 
it  is  convenient  to  divide  them  into  the  early  Kang-hi  pieces,  that 
were  woven  during  the  last  part  of  the  XVII  Century,  and  the  late 
Kang-hi  pieces,  almost  all  of  which  were  woven  at  the  beginning 
of  the  XVIII  Century.  This  division  is  also  convenient;  as  many 
rugs  cannot  be  definitely  assigned  to  the  reign  of  a particular  emperor, 
and,  accordingly,  the  broader  distinction  of  assigning  them  to  differ- 
ent centuries  is  frequently  adopted. 

In  weaving,  as  in  making  porcelain,  many  of  the  products  of 
the  late  Ming  were  still  copied  during  the  early  Kang-hi  period,  but 
there  was  a freer  use  of  colour  and  a more  decorative  ornamentation. 
Many  of  the  figures  are  still  geometric.  Frets  are  conspicuous  in 
the  fields  of  large  numbers  of  these  pieces.  The  dragon  also  is  a favour- 
ite motive;  but  in  the  scrolls  that  represent  the  legs  and  bifurcated 
tail,  and  in  the  conventionalised  head,  the  resemblance  to  the  mythi- 
cal monster  is  almost  lost.  Sometimes  two  or  more  of  these  consti- 
tute a medallion  in  the  centre  of  the  field,  in  which  others  are  grouped 
with  regularity;  while  similar  forms  occupy  the  corners.  Some  of 
the  rugs  in  which  the  fields  are  covered  with  sundry  objects,  as 
scrolls,  vases,  altar  pieces,  and  sacred  plants,  also  belong  to  this 
period.  The  borders  of  these  and  late  Kang-hi  pieces  have  frequently 
an  outer  edging  of  brown  and  a single  border  stripe  with  swastika- 
fret.  In  a few  pieces,  the  stripe  has  a well-balanced  scroll  which  has 
been  developed  from  designs  of  conventionalised  dragons  and  frets 


Plate  61.  Turkoman  Saddlebags 


CHINESE  RUGS 


269 


that  appear  in  the  central  medallion  and  in  the  corners  of  the  field. 
Occasionally,  however,  there  is  an  inner  stripe  with  the  key  meander. 
The  colour  scheme  of  the  late  Ming,  including  the  golden  browns 
and  deep  blues,  is  largely  employed  in  rugs  of  this  period. 

The  same  influences  that  resulted  during  the  late  Kang-hi 
period  in  the  remarkable  development  of  decorative  art  as  applied 
to  porcelains,  produced  a corresponding  effect  in  the  rugs  woven  at 
the  same  time.  Manchurian  ideas  and  taste  gave  renewed  spirit 
to  earlier  Chinese  style.  The  fields  were  not  infrequently  covered 
with  sub-patterns  of  fret  work,  on  which  medallions  appeared  more 
prominently.  The  geometric  figures  were  largely  supplanted  by 
foliate  forms.  Even  when  the  central  medallions  and  corner  figures 
are  of  frets  or  stiffly  conventionalised  dragons,  the  fields  are  often 
covered  with  delicate  scroll  or  foliate  sub-patterns  that  support 
floral  forms  resembling  the  lotus  or  the  peony.  The  drawing  of  some 
of  these  has  a Western  character,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  at 
this  time  the  art  of  Persia  had  a strong  influence  on  the  weaving  of 
China.  In  other  pieces  of  this  class,  the  foliate  and  floral  forms  no 
longer  appear  as  sub-patterns  but  become  the  prominent  feature 
in  the  decoration  of  the  field;  and  the  conventionalised  flowers  are 
arranged  with  precision  in  diagonal  or  perpendicular  lines.  To  this 
period  also  belong  rugs  of  a distinct  type,  in  which  the  field  represents 
a blending  of  pictorial  and  symbolic  ideas,  as,  for  instance,  a home- 
ward flight  of  swallows;  or  a grove  where  butterflies  flit  among  the 
leaves,  and  deer  with  sacred  fungus,  emblematic  of  longevity,  wander. 

The  employment  of  border  stripes  of  uniform  colour  was  still 
continued,  but  there  was  a tendency  to  employ  more  elaborate  de- 
signs in  many  of  the  figured  stripes.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  single 
or  double  vines  with  conventionalised  flowers;  and  though  the 
drawing  is  mechanical,  the  relationship  to  Persian  art  is  apparent. 
Yet  in  most  of  these  pieces  the  swastika-fret  is  used.  A noticeable 
difference  also  exists  in  the  colour  scheme  of  many  of  the  late 
Kang-hi  rugs,  which  frequently  display  brighter  colours.  Much  of 
the  yellow,  for  instance,  contains  more  red,  giving  it  a golden  hue 
known  as  the  “imperial  yellow.” 

Yung-ching.  — During  the  short  reign  of  Yung-ching  (1722- 
1736),  though  many  of  the  old  patterns  were  followed,  the  tendency 
to  adopt  more  ornate  forms  begun  during  the  first  part  of  the  XVIII 
Century  continued.  Manchurian  ideas  were  now  a strong  factor 


270 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


in  Chinese  art,  so  that  the  use  of  colours  and  ornamentation  fol- 
lowed broader  lines.  To  this  period  are  assigned  most  of  those  rugs 
in  which  designs  are  defined  by  lines  of  contrasting  colour  that  has 
been  so  treated  that  the  lines  are  depressed  and  throw  the  designs 
into  bold  relief.  It  is  very  difficult,  however,  to  definitely  determine 
that  any  particular  rug  belongs  to  this  period;  since  the  transition 
in  colour  scheme  and  patterns  was  gradual;  and  the  effect  of  time 
on  dyes,  one  of  the  most  reliable  factors  in  determining  age,  depends 
somewhat  on  their  exposure  to  the  elements  and  to  use.  But  broadly 
speaking,  figures  of  leaf  and  flower  were  more  frequently  adopted 
than  in  preceding  periods  and  designs  became  less  conventionalised 
and  more  artistic.  Lemon  and  citron  shades  of  yellow,  also,  became 
more  prominent  during  this  period. 

Keen-lung.  — The  long  reign  of  Keen-lung,  lasting  from 
1736  to  1795,  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  for  Chinese  art.  To  this 
period  may  safely  be  assigned  most  of  the  existing  rugs  made  before 
the  XIX  Century,  as  well  as  many  of  the  finest  porcelains.  The 
rugs  partake  of  a more  cosmopolitan  character  than  those  which 
had  preceded;  for  not  only  are  many  of  the  designs  and  colours 
strictly  Chinese,  but  others  are  of  a Persian  character,  and  others 
still  suggest  Mohammedan  influences  observable  in  the  products 
of  Turkestan  and  India.  Moreover,  many  of  the  designs  show  a 
delicate  shading  that  is  not  observable  in  the  mgs  made  during  the 
early  part  of  the  century.  As  a whole  they  are  the  most  ornate  of 
Chinese  rugs.  Woven  after  the  inspiration  of  Persian  masterpieces 
had  left  its  strongest  impress  on  Chinese  weavers,  and  decoration 
in  kindred  arts  had  assumed  a luxurious  style,  they  represent  in  the 
drawing  of  leaf  and  flower,  of  birds,  butterflies,  and  emblems  of  early 
philosophy  and  faith,  and  in  the  colours  that  blend  with  rare  har- 
mony, the  most  elaborate  and  voluptuous  expression  of  native 
craftsmanship. 

In  the  best  examples  the  geometric,  and  many  of  the  stiff  con- 
ventional forms  which  continued  through  the  XVII  and  the  early 
part  of  the  XVIII  Century,  disappeared.  In  their  place  was  a greater 
refinement  of  design,  a greater  accuracy  of  drawing,  which  found 
expression  in  floral  forms  that  reached  their  highest  development 
at  this  time  and  became  characteristic  of  it.  Occasionally  they  are 
represented  in  profile  as  is  usually  the  practice  in  Western  Asia,  but 
more  often  are  represented  as  viewed  from  above.  Some  of  them, 


COLOUR  PLATE  X — CHINESE  RUG 


Perfect  technique  of  weaving,  accuracy  of  drawing,  and  subdued 
rich  colouring  are  the  characteristics  of  this  unusual  piece.  The  knots 
of  the  fine  woollen  yarn  are  tied  with  a precision  not  frequently  seen  in 
Chinese  rugs,  and  the  shortness  of  nap  discloses  the  faithfulness  with 
which  an  artist  of  no  ordinary  ability  has  represented  plants  and  flowers. 
Their  soft  tones  stand  out  in  relief  against  a background  now  darkened 
and  enriched  by  the  mellowing  influence  of  time.  Moreover,  the  motives 
of  the  upper  and  the  lower  half  of  the  field,  even  to  the  minutest  detail, 
show  an  exact  balance.  Many  old  Chinese  rugs  are  of  uncertain  age, 
but  this  piece  has  been  attributed,  not  without  reason,  to  the  Kang-hi 
period. 


Loaned  by  Mr.  Nathan  Bentz 


m WAim-i  svsoioo- 

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.bo’mq 


sswail  ■ nAJu/i  ,\YJL  svuoi 


CHINESE  RUGS 


271 


as  chrysanthemums,  peonies,  sunflowers,  and  orchids,  are  most 
dainty  and  naturalistic.  The  fields  of  many  of  these  pieces  are 
covered  with  such  flowers  carefully  arranged  in  harmonious  group- 
ings of  leaf,  bud  and  flower,  but  never  with  the  formal  and  exact 
balance  of  old  Persian  carpets.  Not  infrequently  mingled  with  them 
in  the  same  piece  are  more  conventional  designs  that  belong  to  an 
earlier  period;  sometimes  there  is  a single  central  medallion;  and 
occasionally  there  are  a large  number  of  them.  As  a rule  these 
medallions  are  entirely  floral,  and  in  rugs  made  during  the  latter 
part  of  this  period  they  display  elaborate  ornamentation  that  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  earlier  ones;  but  now  and  then  they  contain 
fabulous  creatures,  as  the  lion-dogs,  by  which  in  a few  instances 
they  are  entirely  replaced. 

There  are  also  many  other  well-known  types  of  Keen-lung  rugs. 
Surrounding  the  central  medallion  of  some  pieces  are  grouped  the 
Taoist  symbols;  emblems  of  the  literati,  as  chess  boards,  scrolls, 
and  the  lyre;  as  well  as  tripods,  flower  vases,  fans  of  state,  fruits 
of  abundance,  emblems  of  honours,  and  symbols  of  longevity  and 
happiness.  To  this  class  also  belong  many  of  the  pieces  which  have 
neither  medallions  nor  corner  pieces,  but  have  fields  completely 
covered  with  a pattern  of  continuous  foliate  stems  and  conventional 
flowers,  repeated  with  exact  precision  of  drawing.  Likewise,  in  a 
few  pieces  the  field  is  completely  covered  with  an  all-over  pattern  of 
small  hexagonal  or  other  geometric  figures  containing  a convention- 
alised flower,  strongly  suggesting  Turkoman  influences.  Some  of 
the  “Grain  of  Rice”  rugs,  also,  were  woven  during  this  period. 

The  borders  are  as  distinctive  as  the  fields.  Only  in  a few  pieces 
is  the  swastika  meander  seen,  but  in  its  place  is  often  the  T pattern. 
The  key  patterns  represented  in  Plate  N,  Figs.  7 and  8 (opp.  Page 
274),  as  well  as  the  dotted  line  (Fig.  22),  are  also  largely  employed. 
Almost  all  of  these  rugs  have  two  ornamented  stripes,  and  occasion- 
ally three,  to  which  is  added  an  outer  margin  of  plain  colour.  In  a 
few  pieces  both  stripes  are  geometric;  but  generally  one  is  floral  and 
one  geometric,  in  which  case  the  wider,  that,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, is  the  floral,  is  the  inner  one.  Very  rarely  the  border  contains 
two  floral  stripes;  and  now  and  then  Buddhist  emblems  and  other 
devices  are  introduced. 

The  breadth  of  artistic  conception  expressed  in  designs  is  accom- 
panied by  a wider  scope  of  colour,  in  the  use  of  which  these  rugs 
may  conveniently  be  grouped  in  three  subclasses.  The  first  is  the 


272 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Blue  and  White,  with  ground  of  ivory  or  ashy  white  and  designs  that 
have  shades  of  light  or  dark  blue.  The  second  comprises  those  in 
which  the  ground  is  some  shade  of  yellow.  Sometimes  it  has  a tinge 
of  lemon,  orange,  or  apricot.  Again  it  is  what  is  known  as  dull, 
golden,  mandarin,  or  imperial  yellow.  The  overlying  designs  may 
contain  a different  shade  of  yellow  from  that  of  the  field,  an  ivory 
white,  a blue,  or  a red.  The  third  subclass  comprises  those  in  which 
the  ground  colour  is  some  shade  of  red;  such  as  persimmon,  terra 
cotta,  crushed  strawberry,  apricot  red,  or  a deep  salmon  pink, 
which  is  rare.  The  overlying  designs  may  be  a shade  of  blue,  ivory 
white,  yellow,  gray,  and  even  green.  Colours  of  both  field  and  border 
are  sometimes  the  same  but  are  more  frequently  complementary. 
As  a whole,  the  elaborate  designs,  delicate  shading,  and  rich  colours 
rank  these  rugs  among  the  most  beautiful  products  of  the  Chinese 
loom. 

The  rugs  woven  during  the  reigns  of  Kea-king  (1796-1820) 
and  Tao-Kwang  (1821-1850),  extending  to  the  middle  of  last  cen- 
tury, repeat  with  slight  modification  the  patterns  of  the  preceding 
period,  though  there  is  a tendency  to  use  larger  and  coarser  designs. 
The  colours,  too,  are  similar,  yet  they  lack  the  deep  richness  that  is 
matured  only  with  the  lapse  of  great  time.  Many  of  these  rugs,  as 
well  as  some  woven  still  later,  before  the  introduction  of  aniline 
dyes  and  factory  processes,  are  beautiful;  but  as  a rule  the  modern 
pieces  lack  the  refinement  of  technique  observable  only  in  those 
produced  before  the  beginning  of  the  XIX  Century. 


MEDALLIONS 

The  study  of  medallions  which  occur  in  fields  of  Chinese  rugs 
is  not  only  interesting  but  is  an  important  aid  in  determining  their 
age;  yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  approved  patterns  were  often 
repeated  even  after  the  introduction  of  more  elaborate  styles.  Many 
of  the  oldest  medallions  were  copied  from  bronzes  or  mirror  backs, 
and  their  drawing  is  geometric  except  as  embellished  by  some  con- 
ventionalised figures  of  the  dragon.  By  a process  of  evolution  these 
figures,  in  turn,  were  converted  into  scrolls,  which  in  time  were  re- 
placed by  elaborate  leaf  and  flower  patterns. 

In  Plate  M,  Fig.  1 (opp.  Page  272),  is  a “Shou”  design  of  octagonal 
shape,  copied  from  an  old  rug  which  was  probably  woven  during  the 
early  part  of  the  XVII  Century. 


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M.  Medallions  in  Chinese  Rugs 


J 


CHINESE  RUGS 


273 


Figs.  2,  3 and  4 of  Plate  M,  represent  fret-covered  medallions, 
which  also  are  found  in  rugs  of  the  same  period.  The  first  is  probably 
the  oldest  pattern;  and  the  last,  to  judge  by  the  panel  surrounding 
it,  was  apparently  copied  from  a bronze  mirror  back. 

In  Plate  M,  Fig.  5,  is  a copy  of  a medallion  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  Plate  M,  Fig.  2,  but  with  the  dragons  replaced  by  frets. 

A medallion  of  greater  interest  is  illustrated  in  Plate  M,  Fig.  6. 
It  shows  the  evolution  of  scrolls  from  dragons,  of  which  the  heads 
alone  betray  their  origin.  Such  medallions  are  found  mostly  in  the 
earliest  rugs. 

By  comparing  Fig.  7 of  Plate  M with  the  preceding,  it  is  apparent 
that  its  scrolls  had  a similar  origin,  but  in  this  one  the  dragon  heads 
have  entirely  disappeared.  The  design  is  characteristic  of  the  early 
Kang-hi  rugs. 

In  Plate  M,  Fig.  8,  is  represented  a medallion  that  closely  resem- 
bles some  of  the  earliest  period;  but  the  more  accurate  drawing  and 
clearer  definition  of  lines  shows  that  it  is  a later  copy.  It  is  found 
in  late  Kang-hi  pieces. 

To  this  period,  also,  belongs  the  geometric  pattern  with  swastikas 
represented  in  Plate  M,  Fig.  9. 

Another  medallion  with  frets  and  dragon  heads  is  shown  in  Plate 
M,  Fig.  10.  The  particular  rug  from  which  it  was  copied  was  prob- 
ably woven  about  the  Yung-ching  period;  but  there  is  little  doubt 
that  similar  medallions  appeared  in  older  rugs. 

In  Figs.  11  and  12  of  Plate  M,  are  represented  two  medallions 
with  foliate  designs  that  were  largely  employed  in  the  early  Keen- 
lung  period.  A comparison  of  the  first  with  Fig.  13  of  Plate  M, 
shows  an  interesting  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  Chinese  drawing. 

A very  different  medallion  pattern  of  the  same  age  is  shown  in 
Plate  M,  Fig.  14,  in  which  an  encircling  border  consists  of  cloud- 
bands. 

Also  during  the  Keen-lung  time  first  appeared  medallions  with 
accurately  drawn  flower  designs.  One  of  this  period  is  shown  in 
Plate  M,  Fig.  15.  Wreath-like  borders,  such  as  are  seen  in  this  and 
the  preceding  one,  are  found  in  XVIII  and  XIX  Century  pieces. 


CHINESE  BORDER  STRIPES 

The  knowledge  that  certain  border  stripes  antedate  others  in 
definite  sequence  of  time,  is  another  aid  in  determining  the  age  of 


274 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


Chinese  rugs.  As  was  seen  to  be  the  case  with  medallions,  the 
earliest  stripes  were  purely  geometric.  In  others,  still  very  old,  ap- 
peared forms  of  conventionalised  dragons,  which  again  were  replaced 
by  simple  scrolls  and  these  by  ornate  floral  forms.  But  it  should  be 
remembered  that  earlier  designs  were  often  copied  in  later  rugs, 
so  that  the  evidence  of  age  is  merely  contributory. 

Stripes  containing  the  swastika  meander  were  used  almost 
exclusively  in  the  oldest  rugs.  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3 of  Plate  N (opp.  Page 
274),  represent  three  old  forms,  which  rarely  appear  in  any  pieces 
woven  since  the  Kang-hi  time.  The  pattern  of  Plate  N,  Fig.  4,  in 
which  alternate  swastikas  are  reversed,  is  also  very  old. 

The  usual  drawing  of  the  swastika  stripe  is  shown  in  Plate  N, 
Fig.  5.  It  is  found  largely  in  Kang-hi  rugs,  and  if  used  in  more 
recent  fabrics,  is  often  accompanied  by  a stripe  with  some  other 
pattern.  As  illustrated  here,  the  facing  of  the  swastika  is  reversed 
in  the  middle  of  the  stripe. 

The  shading  of  Plate  N,  Fig.  6,  which  is  somewhat  similar  to 
Plate  N,  Fig.  4,  is  characteristic  of  the  Keen-lung  and  subsequent 
periods. 

In  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  of  Plate  N,  are  Key  and  T patterns, 
which  are  found  in  rugs  of  the  Kang-hi  and  subsequent  periods, 
but  rarely  in  earlier  pieces.  When  employed  in  rugs  woven  later 
than  the  middle  of  the  XVIII  Century  they  are  often  shaded. 
These  meander  and  key -patterns  are  of  great  antiquity;  and  though 
the  drawing  is  exceedingly  simple,  it  is  supposed  that  the  figures 
from  which  they  were  derived  once  symbolised  clouds  and  thunder. 

A very  interesting  stripe  derived  from  dragons  is  illustrated  in 
Plate  N,  Fig.  11.  The  rectangular  frets  represent  bodies  of  which 
conventionalised  heads  alone  betray  their  origin.  The  graceful 
scroll  in  the  middle  was  also  probably  derived  from  dragon  forms. 
This  stripe  is  seen  in  old  Kang-hi  rugs. 

The  rectangular  frets  and  floral  forms  are  combined  in  an  un- 
usual stripe  (Plate  N,  Fig.  12)  that  appeared  in  rugs  which  were 
probably  woven  about  the  Yung-ching  period.  It  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  older  traditions  on  which  are  ingrafted  the  later  inspiration. 

Still  more  interesting  is  a stripe  (Plate  N,  Fig.  13)  seen  in  what 
are  known  as  Buddhist  rugs  of  the  Keen-lung  period.  In  different 
parts  of  the  border  appear  the  Buddhist  emblems,  the  Joo-e,  conch, 
wheel  of  law,  and  knot  of  destiny,  separated  by  cloud-bands  and 
foliate  and  floral  motives. 


J L 

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FO  Ln  nJ  Ln  nJ  Ln  nJ  0 


ii 


Plate  N.  Primary  and  Secondary  Border-Stripes  of  Chinese  Rugs 


CHINESE  RUGS 


27  5 


The  tendency  to  use  more  ornate  forms  in  the  Keen-lung  and  later 
rags  is  shown  in  Plate  N,  Figs.  14,  15,  and  16,  which  illustrate 
three  stripes  that  with  slight  modifications  are  found  in  large  num- 
bers of  Chinese  rugs  of  the  last  half  of  the  XVIII  and  the  XIX  Cen- 
turies. 

The  stripe  illustrated  in  Plate  N,  Fig.  17,  on  which  are  represented 
halves  of  octagonal  discs  containing  conventional  flower  forms,  is 
found  in  some  rugs  woven  as  early  as  the  first  part  of  the  XVIII 
Century,  as  well  as  in  more  subsequent  pieces.  The  central  fields 
of  some  rugs  in  which  it  is  found  have  geometric  Ming  patterns,  and 
others  have  floral  conceits  that  suggest  Persian  influences. 

In  Figs.  18,  19,  20,  and  21,  of  Plate  N,  are  represented  simple 
stripes  found  in  XVIII  Century  rugs.  The  last  of  these,  which  is 
found  in  Keen-lung  porcelain,  shows  a marked  resemblance  to  the 
reciprocal  trefoil  so  common  in  Persian  pieces. 

The  simple  dotted  stripe  (Plate  N,  Fig.  22)  was  rarely  employed 
before  the  middle  of  the  XVIII  Century,  but  has  been  constantly 
used  since  then. 


CHAPTER  XV 

KILIMS 


j^ILIMS  have  a special  interest  apart  from  their 
beauty  and  utility,  as  some  of  them  un- 
doubtedly resemble  the  early  fabrics  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Babylonians  from  which  were 
evolved  the  more  durable  pile  carpets.  The 
different  links  in  this  evolution  can  only  be 
conjectured.  Yet  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
such  pieces  as  the  nomadic  kilims,  which 
occasionally  have  little  tufts  of  wool  attached  for  ornament  or  loose 
threads  of  weft  hanging  from  one  side,  first  suggested  the  greater 
durability  and  warmth  that  would  be  derived  from  a woven  fabric 
completely  covered  with  tufts  of  yarn. 

It  is  also  certain  that  the  most  delicately  woven  kilims  have  like- 
wise been  evolved  from  cruder  forms.  In  fact,  the  different  steps 
in  this  evolution  correspond  to  three  separate  styles  of  weaving 
still  in  vogue.  The  earliest  products  which  were  made  subsequent 
to  the  primitive  weaving  of  uncoloured  warp  and  weft  were  doubt- 
less similar  to  the  simple  fabrics  now  used  to  line  the  under  side  of 
saddle  bags,  and  consisted  of  a warp  and  weft  of  uniformly  coloured 
threads.  A much  more  advanced  style,  induced  by  a desire  for 
ornamentation,  was  the  representation  of  patterns  which  required 
the  use  of  different  coloured  threads  of  weft.  As  these  threads 
were  never  carried  beyond  the  edges  of  each  pattern,  their  loose 
ends  were  at  first  allowed  to  hang  at  the  back,  giving  an  appearance 
somewhat  similar  to  what  is  seen  in  Soumaks.  The  third  and  most 
finished  style,  representing  much  higher  workmanship,  was  pro- 
duced by  deftly  disposing  of  the  ends  of  threads  of  weft  so  that  they 
should  be  concealed  and  thus  permit  each  surface  of  the  kilim  to 
be  exactly  the  same. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  weaving  is  constantly  seen  in  the  East.  The 
first  not  only  is  used  as  a lining  for  saddle  bags,  but  is  frequently 
substituted  for  them.  It  is  also  sometimes  used  as  the  only  floor 


KILIMS 


277 


covering,  or  again  is  laid  as  a protection  beneath  valuable  carpets. 
It  often  replaces  the  heavier  felt  for  tents,  and  indeed  is  utilised  for 
all  purposes  requiring  a strong  material  like  canvas.  The  second  is 
found  among  nomadic  weavers,  especially  those  of  Asia  Minor; 
who  naturally  waste  no  unnecessary  labour  in  weaving  kilims  with 
a delicate  finish,  which  would  be  quickly  marred  by  the  rough  usage 
that  they  receive.  The  third,  which  is  the  more  elegant  product, 
is  invariably  not  only  of  excellent  finish  but  of  carefully  drawn 
patterns.  In  this  country,  the  last  two  are  used  principally  for  por- 
tieres and  couch  coverings;  but  in  the  Orient  they  still  serve,  as 
they  have  from  the  remotest  times,  for  floor  coverings;  and  because 
of  the  custom  of  removing  the  shoes  when  entering  a house,  last 
for  a great  many  years. 

Though  these  three  styles  represent  the  principal  variations  in 
kilim  weaving,  there  are  a few  pieces  with  embroidered  pattern; 
and  embroidered  stitches  are  sometimes  added  to  represent  some 
simple  design,  or  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  Shirvans,  to  make  more 
prominent  the  separate  horizontal  compartments. 

When  weaving  a kilim,  the  threads  of  warp  are  strung  as  in  piled 
rugs,  and  number  from  six  to  eighteen  to  the  inch  according  to  the 
texture.  There  are  generally  about  twenty  threads  of  weft  to  the 
inch,  measured  at  the  front  or  back;  but  in  pieces  of  the  finest 
workmanship,  there  may  be  as  many  as  fifty,  and  in  the  crudest  only 
eight  or  nine.  At  the  sides  of  the  kilim,  the  threads  of  weft  encircle 
the  last  thread  of  warp  as  at  the  sides  of  any  pattern;  but  at  the 
ends,  the  threads  of  warp  are  braided  about  a heavier  added  cord, 
or  else  are  tied  in  knots,  from  which  their  loose  ends  are  permitted 
to  hang  like  tassels. 

The  patterns  are  usually  geometric;  and  even  when  an  attempt 
is  made  to  copy  floral  figures,  the  drawing  inclines  to  the  rectilinear. 
If  a straight  line  representing  the  side  of  a figure  is  horizontal,  or 
in  the  direction  of  the  weft,  it  will  often  be  several  inches  in  length; 
but  a straight  perpendicular  line  never  exceeds  an  inch  in  length. 
This  is  because  the  threads  of  weft  are  never  carried  from  one  pat- 
tern to  another  or  to  the  adjoining  field,  but  are  turned  back  at  its 
defining  edges,  so  that  an  opening  is  left,  which  would  impair  the 
strength  of  the  fabric  if  it  were  of  much  length.  Accordingly, 
if  it  is  desired  to  represent  a pattern  with  perpendicular  sides,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  edges  be  slightly  uneven.  But  here  necessity 
is  turned  to  advantage,  as  this  unevenness  or  fringing  softens  lines 


278 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


that  otherwise  would  be  harsh.  Defining  the  outlines  of  many 
figures  is  yarn  of  different  colours,  which  either  may  be  woven  like 
other  threads  of  weft,  or  when  it  serves  the  purpose  of  closing  the 
space  between  adjacent  threads  of  warp,  may  be  attached  by 
stitches.  Borders  find  slight  favour  with  kilim  weavers,  and  in  most 
pieces  they  are  entirely  wanting  or  only  present  at  one  end.  Even 
when  they  completely  surround  the  field,  there  is  generally  some 
difference  in  design  or  colour  between  the  stripes  of  side  and  end. 
Prayer  arches  are  found  in  some  of  the  kilims,  but  their  outlines 
rarely  correspond  closely  with  those  of  piled  rugs. 

The  colours,  by  which  alone  the  patterns  are  distinguished,  are 
largely  responsible  for  the  character  of  the  kilim.  Threads  of  weft 
of  every  hue  that  is  seen  in  piled  rugs  are  employed  in  these  pieces; 
yet  the  colouring  never  appears  the  same,  since  there  are  lacking  the 
lustre  and  deep  wealth  of  tones  due  to  the  length  of  pile,  in  which 
appears  an  almost  imperceptible  gradation  from  the  ends  that  are 
exposed  to  the  light  and  have  incurred  the  mellowing  influence  of 
the  elements  to  the  part  which  retains  more  of  the  original  colours 
and  seems  darker,  because  it  is  more  concealed.  Indeed,  on  account 
of  the  lack  of  pile,  the  colours  and  patterns  would  seem  harsh 
were  it  not  for  the  irregularities  of  perpendicular  and  diagonal 
lines,  the  devices  of  latch-hooks,  and  other  peculiarities  that  con- 
vey to  the  eye  an  impression  of  blending.  Moreover  when  the 
designs  are  large,  the  effect  of  the  colour  is  always  severe;  but 
when  the  field  is  covered  with  innumerable  small  figures,  it  is  greatly 
softened. 

As  kilims  are  much  less  durable  than  rugs  that  have  a pile  to 
protect  the  warp  and  weft,  it  is  not  surprising  that  few  of  great  age 
remain.  The  oldest  piece  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  is  a 
fragment  obtained  by  Dr.  M.  A.  Stein,  the  archaeological  explorer, 
from  the  ruins  near  Khotan,  in  Eastern  Turkestan,  of  an  ancient 
settlement,  which  was  buried  by  sand  drifts  about  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century  anno  domini.  The  weave  is  almost  identical  with  that 
of  modern  kilims,  and  has  about  fourteen  threads  of  warp  and  sixteen 
threads  of  weft  to  the  inch.  The  pattern  consists  of  narrow  stripes 
of  blue,  green,  brownish  yellow,  and  red,  containing  very  small 
geometric  designs.  With  this  one  exception,  so  peculiarly  preserved, 
there  are  probably  very  few  over  a century  old. 

Though  kilims  are  now  made  in  most  of  the  districts  where 
piled  carpets  are  woven,  very  few  classes  are  recognised.  This 


Plate  (ri.  Srinagar  Rug 


KILIMS 


279 


is  because  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  most  of  them,  and 
such  differences  as  exist  are  with  few  exceptions  unimportant.  The 
best  known  classes  are  the  Sehna,  Shirvan,  Karaman,  Kurdish, 
Turkish,  and  Merv. 

The  Sehna  kilims  are  usually  of  small  size,  and  rarely  exceed  a 
breadth  of  four  and  a half  feet  and  a length  of  seven.  They  are 
far  superior  to  all  others  in  the  delicacy  of  colour,  daintiness  of 
design,  quality  of  material,  and  character  of  workmanship.  Their 
patterns,  including  border,  are  identical  with  those  of  the  piled 
rugs;  and  the  colours,  to  which  at  a short  distance  the  small  figures 
of  the  Herati  design  give  the  effect  of  blending,  are  the  same.  As 
is  not  the  case  with  other  kilims,  the  warp  is  of  cotton  or  linen 
and  there  are  generally  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  threads  to  the 
inch.  The  weft  is  of  wool,  and  to  an  inch  there  are  often  nearly 
fifty  threads  encircling  a thread  of  warp  as  they  cross  and  recross. 
The  old  pieces,  like  the  rugs  of  which  they  are  true  copies,  are  rapidly 
becoming  scarce.  They  resemble  tapestries  and  are  unfit  for  hard 
usage. 

A large  percentage  of  the  kilims  now  sold  in  this  country  are 
Shirvans.  Their  fields  are  divided  into  a number  of  parallel  hori- 
zontal compartments  or  bands  a foot  or  more  in  width  separated 
by  narrower  bands.  Not  infrequently  the  principal  figures  of  the  wide 
bands  are  hexagons  surrounding  smaller  geometric  figures;  and 
through  the  more  narrow  bands  runs  a waving  line  or  a parti-col- 
oured cord.  Another  peculiarity,  occasionally  seen,  are  the  ray- 
like projections  of  uniform  colour  fringing  the  edges  of  the  sides. 
As  a rule,  there  are  no  borders,  but  at  each  end  are  two  or  more  narrow 
bands  that  give  the  effect  of  a border.  In  some  pieces  webs  of  plain 
colour  extend  beyond  the  bands;  and  the  ends  are  fringed  with  loose 
threads  of  warp.  The  colours  are  always  pronounced,  because  of 
lack  of  shading,  and  consist  mostly  of  red,  blue,  and  ivory.  Yellow 
and  green  are  also  used.  These  kilims  are  much  heavier  than  the 
Sehnas,  and  also  larger,  as  the  average  size  is  about  five  by  nine  feet; 
and  some  are  even  seven  by  twelve  feet. 

From  the  district  of  Karaman  in  Southern  Asia  Minor,  such  a 
large  number  of  kilims  were  formerly  imported  into  Europe  that  the 
general  name  of  Karamani  was  applied  to  all  kilims.  They  are  still 
made  there  by  many  of  the  tribes  of  Turkish  or  Turkoman  origin, 
who  wander  over  the  Taurus  mountains,  and  like  all  their  fabrics 
are  stoutly  woven.  Their  average  size  is  about  four  and  a half  by 


280 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


eight  feet.  In  colours  and  patterns,  they  resemble  many  of  the  Kur- 
dish kilims  from  the  districts  farther  to  the  east. 

A distinction  similar  to  what  exists  in  the  piled  rugs  of  the 
Kurds,  and  dependent  on  the  district  in  which  they  are  made,  is 
observable  in  their  kilims,  as  those  which  come  from  the  Persian 
border  have  carefully  drawn  designs,  that  are  generally  lacking  in 
others  woven  in  the  mountainous  watershed  of  the  Tigris  and 
the  Euphrates.  Many  of  these  are  coarsely  woven,  and  from  the 
back  hang  the  loose  ends  of  threads  of  weft,  that  in  more  artistic 
pieces,  are  removed.  Moreover,  in  modern  pieces  the  colours  are 
often  crude  or  even  garish.  Some  of  the  kilims  have  large  diamond- 
shaped figures  containing  small  designs;  others  have  horizontal 
bands  in  which  are  woven  embroidered  devices  suggestive  of  the 
so-called  Bagdad  portieres;  in  many  are  wide  spaces  without  de- 
signs; but  whatever  the  pattern,  there  is  usually  a parti-coloured 
cord  running  through  the  web  at  the  end. 

In  many  parts  of  Asia  Minor  are  made  kilims  that  are  usually 
classed  as  Turkish.  They  are  of  large  size,  and  since  they  are  used 
mostly  for  portieres  or  curtains,  are  divided  perpendicularly  into 
equal  halves,  that  at  times  are  united  by  stitches.  The  tribes  that 
make  them  also  make  large  numbers  of  smaller  prayer  kilims  with 
pointed  arches  suggesting  the  Ghiordes  design.  Some  of  them  are 
beautifully  woven,  yet  the  finest  workmanship  is  shown  in  pieces 
known  as  “Kis-kilims”  or  girl’s  kilims.  These  are  made  with  the 
utmost  care,  since  they  are  intended  as  a bride’s  gift  to  her  husband ; 
and  a sentiment  of  romance,  and  the  hope  that  her  skill  may  weigh 
favourably  in  the  estimation  of  her  accomplishments,  contribute  to 
influence  the  weaver.  Sometimes  even  a lock  of  hair  is  added  as 
a charm,  or  coloured  beads  as  a talisman. 

The  Christians  who  live  permanently  about  Oushak,  and  are, 
accordingly,  not  under  the  necessity  of  making  such  small  pieces 
as  can  conveniently  be  carried  by  wandering  tribes,  weave  some  of 
the  largest  kilims.  Most  of  them  are  at  least  six  feet  in  width  and 
many  are  much  wider. 

The  best  known  kilims  from  the  Central  Asiatic  group  are  known 
as  “Merv  Kilims,”  since  they  are  woven  by  Turkoman  tribes  who 
inhabit  the  desert  near  the  old  capital  of  Merv.  The  brilliant  colours 
found  in  the  products  of  more  Western  tribes  are  entirely  wanting, 
and  in  their  place  are  the  few  subdued,  rich  tones  so  characteristic 
of  all  Turkoman  weavings.  These  pieces  are  stoutly  woven,  and 


KILIMS 


281 


since  the  pattern  is  represented  by  diagonal  lines,  there  is  no  open 
work.  The  designs  are  largely  of  diamond-shape,  and  are  arranged 
in  parallel  horizontal  lines  on  a field  that  is  usually  surrounded  by  a 
border  profusely  ornamented  with  carefully  drawn  latch-hooks. 
A heavy  embroidered  selvage,  from  which  hang  loose  threads  of 
warp,  often  occurs  at  the  ends.  These  kilims  are  noted  for  their 
durability,  and  are  usually  of  large  size. 

In  the  city  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  four  miles  from  the  Indus  river, 
are  woven  kilims  in  which  warp  and  weft  are  of  wool,  as  is  not  the 
case  with  almost  all  the  rugs  of  India.  They  are  made  by  the  women 
in  their  own  homes  and  display  an  individuality  which  also  is  rare 
in  Indian  textile  fabrics.  In  a monograph  on  “Carpet  Weaving 
in  the  Punjab,”  Mr.  C.  Latimer  says:  “The  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  rug, 
which  belongs  really  to  the  kind  of  fabrics  known  as  kilims,  is  woven 
in  stripes,  with  designs  between  them,  and  it  is  interesting  to  notice 
that  the  patterns  employed  were  by  local  tradition  originally  copied 
from  the  robes  of  the  Pharaohs  of  Egypt.” 

Though  all  such  Oriental  weavings  lack  the  precision  of  drawing 
and  the  delicacy  of  minutely  varied  colour  so  frequently  found  in 
piled  rugs;  though  they  never  display  high,  artistic  perception  or 
poetic  instinct,  nevertheless  some  of  the  oldest  pieces  with  designs 
suggestive  of  the  workings  of  a primitive  imagination  untrammelled 
by  the  conventions  of  art,  and  with  a chaste  simplicity  of  colour 
that  lends  an  atmosphere  of  dignity,  possess  a subtle  charm  that 
awakens  an  intense  interest. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  RUGS 


?HE  owner  of  an  Oriental  rug  will  find  the 
pleasure  to  be  derived  from  it  will  be  greater 
if  he  knows  where  and  by  whom  it  was  made. 
This  is  particularly  true  if  it  is  one  of  those 
pieces  of  which  the  charm  depends  more  on 
its  individuality  than  on  the  masterly  hand- 
ling of  line  and  colour.  The  study  of  classi- 
fication, therefore,  will  well  repay  the  effort; 
though  unfortunately  it  is  often  discouraging,  since  it  involves  a 
consideration  of  the  characteristics  of  a hundred  different  classes, 
almost  all  of  which  are  found  to  have  exceptions  to  the  best  known 
types.  To  add  to  the  difficulty,  the  opinions  of  dealers  in  regard  to 
the  less  known  classes  are  very  often  erroneous;  and  detailed  descrip- 
tions, even  at  the  best,  are  unsatisfactory.  Without  a long  personal 
experience  in  handling  rugs,  combined  with  careful  study,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  become  expert;  but  familiarity  with  one  class  makes  it  easier 
by  comparison  and  a process  of  elimination  to  distinguish  others. 

The  beginner  should  first  learn  to  identify  each  of  the  six  groups. 
Of  these  the  Chinese  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  their  well-known 
patterns,  which  are  found  in  no  other  part  of  the  Orient  except  in 
the  rugs  known  as  Samarkands,  Yarkands,  and  Kashgars;  and  the 
Indian  may  generally  be  recognised  by  the  realism  and  formal 
arrangement  of  their  floral  patterns.  Relatively  few  of  either  group 
are  found  in  the  United  States;  and  as  about  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
rugs  belong  to  the  other  four  groups,  they  alone  will  be  considered 
in  detail.  Leaving  out  of  consideration,  then,  the  Chinese  and 
Indian  rugs,  it  should  be  remembered: 


(а)  That,  as  a rule,  rugs  from  Persia  have  floral  patterns; 

and  rugs  from  Asia  Minor,  Caucasia,  and  Central  Asia 
have  geometric. 

(б)  That  figures  with  latch-hooks  belong  principally  to  rugs  of 

the  Caucasian  group  and,  to  a limited  extent,  to  the  rugs 
of  the  Asia  Minor  group. 


Plate  G3.  XVIII  Century  Chinese  Rug 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  RUGS 


283 


(c)  That  fields  covered  with  designs  of  octagonal  or  diamond 

shape  belong  to  rugs  of  the  Central  Asian  group. 

(d)  That  about  two  thirds  of  the  Persian  group  have  cotton 

warp;  and  the  remaining  third,  as  well  as  the  Asia  Minor 
and  almost  all  the  Caucasian  and  Central  Asian  group 
have  woollen  warp. 

(i e ) That  about  one  third  of  the  Persian  group  have  one  of  the 
two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  doubled  under 
the  other  so  as  to  be  hidden  at  the  back;  and  that  this  is 
not  the  case  with  the  remaining  two  thirds  nor  with  almost 
all  classes  of  other  groups. 

(/)  That,  with  few  exceptions,  the  Persian  rugs  have  a side 
finish  of  overcasting;  and  the  other  groups  have  both 
overcasting  and  selvage. 

(g)  That  the  rugs  from  Persia  and  Central  Asia  have  both 

light  and  dark  colours  which,  though  rich,  are  subdued 
and  harmonious;  that  the  rugs  of  Asia  Minor  and  Cau- 
casia have  colours  that  are  often  gaudy  and  inharmonious; 
and  that  the  rugs  of  the  Central  Asian  group  have  dark 
tones  of  red,  blue,  and  brown. 

( h ) That  all  of  the  rugs  of  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasia  have  the 

Ghiordes  knot;  that  the  rugs  of  Central  Asia,  with  rare  ex- 
ceptions, have  the  Selma  knot;  that  the  rugs  of  Persia  with 
woollen  warp  have  the  Ghiordes  knot ; and  that  those  with 
cotton  warp  have  either  the  Ghiordes  or  the  Sehna  knot. 

(i)  That  the  few  classes  of  rugs  which  have  very  long  end-webs 

belong  to  the  Central  Asian  group.  Of  the  classes  with 
moderately  long  end-webs,  several  belong  to  the  Central 
Asian  and  the  Asia  Minor  groups,  only  two  belong  to  the 
Persian  group,  and  none  belongs  to  the  Caucasian  group. 

Excluding  the  Indian  and  Chinese  rugs,  it  follows  from  the 
above  statements  that: 

(1)  A rug  is  from  Persia  or  Central  Asia,  — 

If  it  has  a Sehna  knot. 

(2)  A rug  is  probably  Persian,  — 

If  the  patterns  are  distinctly  floral; 

If  the  warp  is  cotton; 

If  one  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  is 
doubled  under  the  other. 


284 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


(3)  A rug  is  probably  from  Asia  Minor,  Caucasia,  or  Central 

Asia,  — 

If  the  pattern  is  geometric; 

If  the  sides  are  selvaged. 

(4)  A rug  is  probably  from  Asia  Minor  or  Caucasia,  — 

If  the  colours  are  gaudy  or  inharmonious. 

(5)  A rug  is  probably  from  Caucasia,  — 

If  the  designs  are  largely  fringed  with  latch-hooks. 

(6)  A rug  is  probably  from  Central  Asia,  — 

If  the  field  is  covered  with  octagons  or  diamond-shaped 
designs,  and  has  dark  tones  of  red,  blue  or  brown; 

If  it  has  long  webs  at  the  ends. 

Of  these  four  groups  the  Persian  has  the  largest  number  of  classes, 
some  of  which  can  only  with  difficulty  be  distinguished  from  one 
another.  They  may,  however,  conveniently  be  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing subgroups,  depending  on  the  technical  peculiarities  of  the 
weaving  and  the  material  of  the  warp,  so  that  the  task  of  learning 
the  class  of  a particular  rug  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  first  de- 
termining to  which  of  these  subgroups  it  belongs,  and  then  elim- 
inating the  others  from  consideration. 


Kashan. 

Kermanshah. 

Khorassan. 


’ Sehna  Knot  (A) 


Sehna  Knot  (A)  Kirman. 


One  thread  of 
warp  to  each  knot 
doubled  under  and 
hidden  at  back. 


Meshed. 

Mir  Sarabend. 
Sarouk. 
Gorevan. 
Herat 


Ghiordes  Knot  (B)  Herez 


Serapi 
. Tabriz 
' Feraghan 


Cotton  Warp  Each  thread  Gf 


Sehna  Knot  (C)  Z \ u a 
v Muskabad 


Sehna  Knot  (C) 


warp  equally  prom- 
inent at  back  or 
one  slightly  de- 
pressed. 


Ghiordes  Knot  (D)  Joshaghan 


Royal  Sarabend 

Gulistan 

Iran 


Luristan 

Sultanabad 


Quincunx  effect 
of  weft  at  back. 


Sehna  Knot  (E)  Sehna 


Ghiordes  Knot  (F) 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  RUGS 


285 


It  should  be  remembered,  when  studying  the  foregoing  table,  that 
all  classes  of  rugs  are  subject  to  occasional  variations  in  the  techni- 
calities of  their  weave,  as  for  instance,  the  Herats  may  have  woollen 
warp  and  Sehna  knots;  the  Tabriz  very  often  have  linen  warp;  some 
of  the  Feraghans,  Mahals,  Muskabads,  and  Sehnas  have  the  Ghiordes 
knot  and  some  of  the  Sultanabads  have  the  Sehna  knot;  the  Josha- 
ghans  may  have  woollen  warp;  and  in  modern  Ispahans  the  weft 
sometimes  crosses  twice  between  two  rows  of  knots. 


Woollen  Warp, 
Ghiordes  Knot. 


One  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot  doubled 
under  at  back 


(G) 


Each  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  to  a knot 
equally  prominent  at  back,  or  one  slightly  (H) 
depressed 


Quincunx  effect  of  weft  at  back  (I) 


Bijar. 

Niris  * 

Karadagh. 

Suj-Bulak 

Kurdistan. 

Afshar. 

Mosul. 

Shiraz,  f 

Karaje.f 


With  reference  to  size,  these  rugs  may  conveniently  be  divided  as  follows: 


Rugs  invariably  of  carpet  size 


Rugs  frequently,  but  not  always,  of  carpet  size 


Rugs  frequently  seen  as  runners 


Gorevan. 

Mahal. 

Muskabad. 

Serapi. 

Sultanabad 

Bijar. 

Herat. 

Kermanshah. 

Khorassan. 

Meshed. 

Sarabend. 

Tabriz. 

Hamadan. 

Karaje. 

Kurdistan. 

Mosul. 


Of  the  subgroups  represented  on  Page  284,  “A”  includes  those  that 
have  the  closest  and  finest  woven  texture.  In  this  respect  the 
Kashans,  Sarouks,  and  Kirmans  are,  in  the  order  named,  superior 
to  the  others;  and  the  Kermanshahs  are  the  coarsest  and  the  least 
evenly  woven.  In  subgroup  “ B ” the  Tabriz  are  the  best  woven  and 
have  the  shortest  nap.  The  Gorevans  and  Serapis  have  several 
concentric  medallions,  in  which  are  designs  of  archaically  drawn 
* Sometimes  Sehna  knot. 

t Sometimes  one  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot  is  doubled  under  the  other, 
f Rarely  Iran,  Feraghan,  Mosul,  and  Kurdistan. 


28G 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


leaves,  and  have  generally  the  so-called  turtle  border.  The  Herats 
have  the  typical  Herati  border.  Of  the  classes  of  subgroup  “ C,” 
the  Royal  Sarabends  are  the  closest  woven.  The  Feraghans  are 
slightly  coarser  and  the  Mahals  and  Muskabads  are  much  coarser 
and  have  longer  nap.  The  Luristans,  Joshaghans,  and  Gulistans 
are  the  best  woven  of  subgroup  “D.”  At  the  back  of  Luristans  each 
half  knot  is  distinct  from  the  other  like  a separate  bead;  and  in 
a few  Joshaghans  each  half  knot  is  almost  as  distinct.  Both  Irans 
and  Sultanabads  are  coarsely  woven.  Comparing  subgroups  “E” 
and  “F,”  the  weave  of  Sehnas  presents  a file-like  appearance  at  the 
back ; and  in  Hamadans  the  weft  is  of  much  coarser  diameter  than  in 
the  other  two  classes.  The  Bijars  of  subgroup  “ G ” are  much  stouter 
than  the  Niris  and  have  one  of  the  two  threads  of  weft  to  each  knot 
more  completely  doubled  under  the  other.  The  webs  at  the  ends 
of  the  Niris  are  very  much  longer  than  those  of  Bijars.  Subgroup 
“H”  contains  the  Kurdistans,  Suj-Bulaks  and  Mosuls,  all  of 
which  are  woven  in  territory  where  for  generations  the  Kurds  have 
held  sway,  and  show  Kurdish  characteristics.  The  Western  Kur- 
distans may  easily  be  distinguished  by  their  brown  colours,  nomadic 
character,  and  coarse  warp  and  weft.  The  Persian  Kurdistans  are 
very  stoutly  and  firmly  woven,  and  usually  have  one  of  the  two 
threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot  depressed  below  the  other. 
The  Mosuls  have  each  of  the  two  threads  of  warp  encircled  by  a knot 
equally  prominent  at  the  back;  and  a characteristic  feature  is  the 
coloured,  crudely  spun  yarn  of  weft,  which  on  account  of  the  size 
of  its  diameter  stands  up  as  high  as  the  yarn  of  the  knots  at  the  back. 
In  a typical  Suj-Bulak  the  alignment  of  knots  at  the  back  appears 
uneven  or  serrated.  The  Karadaghs  have  Caucasian  characteris- 
tics; the  Afshars  have  coarse,  wiry  wool  for  the  weft,  and  threads 
of  warp  strung  so  that  each  half  knot  is  distinct. 

Although  the  technicalities  of  weaving  are  the  most  reliable  evi- 
dence for  determining  the  class  to  which  a rug  belongs,  the  patterns 
are  important  guides.  It  will  be  well,  therefore,  to  remember  that: 

A Persian  rug  is  probably  a Shiraz,  Karadagh,  Karaje,  Mosul, 
Kurdistan,  or  Afshar,  if  the  pattern  is  partly  geometric. 

If  the  field  has  concentric  medallions,  the  rug  may  be  a Kerman- 
shah,  Sarouk,  Kashan,  Sehna,  Gorevan,  Herez,  Tabriz,  Mahal, 
Muskabad,  or  Sultanabad. 

If  the  field  is  covered  with  pear  designs,  the  rug  may  be  a Sara- 
bend,Burujird,Khorassan,  Shiraz,  Niris,  Iran,  Joshaghan,  or  Luristan. 


Plate  64.  Chinese  Rug  of  the  Keen-Lung  Period 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  RUGS 


287 


If  the  field  is  covered  with  small  Herati  designs,  the  rug  may- 
be a Feraghan,  Selma,  or  an  Iran. 

If  the  field  is  covered  with  small  designs  of  the  Guli  Hinnai 
plant,  the  rug  may  be  a Feraghan. 

If  the  field  is  covered  with  the  Mina  Khani  pattern,  the  rug  may 
be  a Persian  Kurdistan. 

A Persian  rug  is  usually  a Shiraz,  Niris,  Mosul,  or  Kurdistan 
if  the  nap  is  long. 

It  is  almost  invariably  either  a Shiraz  or  a Niris  if  the  webs  of 
the  ends  are  long,  and  the  overcasting  of  the  sides  has  a barber-pole 
design  or  has  short  lengths  of  different  colours.  The  Niris  resembles 
the  Shiraz;  but  one  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot  is  more  depressed, 
the  ends  generally  have  longer  webs,  and  the  field  is  more  frequently 
covered  with  large  pear  designs.  It  is  a Shiraz  if  short  tassels  or 
tufts  project  at  regular  intervals  from  the  ends;  and  it  is  probably 
a Niris  if  it  fihs  a long  end-web  of  different  coloured  stripes. 

It  is  probably  a Karadagh,  Gorevan,  Serapi,  Ilerez,  or  Tabriz 
if  the  sides  are  finished  with  a selvage. 

Many  of  these  classes  have  features  by  which  they  can  be  dis- 
tinguished at  once  from  all  others.  For  instance: 

The  Sarabend  has  a field  completely  covered  with  pear  designs 
of  moderate  size  facing  in  opposite  directions  in  alternate  lines; 
borders  of  several  stripes,  of  which  one  or  two  are  ivory  white  with 
an  angular  vine  from  which  are  suspended  mechanically  drawn  pear 
designs,  and  one  or  two  narrow  stripes  with  reciprocal  trefoils. 
Only  two  other  classes  are  similar:  the  Iran  copies,  which  are  always 
woven  more  coarsely  and  have  the  Ghiordes  knot,  and  the  Bur- 
ujirds,  which  are  rarely  seen. 

Most  Feraghans  have  fields  that  are  completely  covered  with 
small  Herati  or  Guli  Hinnai  designs,  and  have  the  turtle  pattern 
in  the  border.  The  only  other  rugs  that  are  similar  are  the  Iran 
copies,  which  have  the  Ghiordes  knot  and  are  more  coarsely  woven. 

Almost  all  Hamadans  may  be  distinguished  at  once  by  the  broad 
band  of  camel’s  hair  surrounding  the  border,  and  the  coarse  weft 
crossing  only  once  between  two  rows  of  knots  so  as  to  give  a quin- 
cunx effect  at  the  back. 

Gorevans  are  invariably  of  carpet  size.  They  have  fields  almost 
covered  with  central  medallions  on  which  are  archaically  drawn 
leaves,  and  a broad  central  border  stripe  with  a large  convention- 
alised turtle  pattern.  They  have  usually  the  same  colour  tones. 


288 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


which  once  seen  are  not  forgotten.  The  Serapis  are  similar  to  Gore- 
vans  but  are  usually  older  and  of  better  colours. 

The  Kermanshahs  have  tones  of  ivory,  pink,  and  light  green, 
that  are  softer  and  lighter  than  those  of  almost  any  other  rug.  The 
fields  have  concentric  medallions  with  dainty  floral  forms  that  are 
rarely  seen  in  other  classes  except  the  Sarouks  and  Kashans;  and 
the  borders,  that  correspond  in  drawing  and  colouring  with  the  field, 
have  an  outer  edging  that  is  almost  invariably  of  pink,  but  sometimes 
dark  blue.  The  drawing  and  colours,  which  are  not  easily  described 
but  quickly  learned,  at  once  distinguish  these  pieces  from  all  others. 

Some  Mesheds  resemble  Kermanshahs,  but  the  nap  is  more 
silky,  uneven,  and  lustrous.  The  texture  at  the  back  is  finer. 

The  rugs  of  Tabriz,  which  are  usually  made  in  carpet  sizes,  may 
be  distinguished  by  their  linen  nap  hanging  in  a short  fringe  at  the 
ends.  They  are  not  likely  to  be  confused  with  any  classes  but  the 
Mesheds,  Khorassans,  and  Kermanshahs;  but  the  nap  is  shorter, 
and  harsher  to  the  touch;  the  knot  is  Ghiordes,  and  the  drawing 
more  formal. 

Almost  the  only  Persian  rug  that  has  small,  geometric,  adven- 
titious designs  and  latch-hooks  is  the  Shiraz.  It  is  the  only  one  that 
has  small  tufts  of  wool  projecting  from  the  sides;  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Niris  is  the  only  one  that,  as  a rule,  has  a barber-pole 
overcasting  and  a long  web  at  the  ends.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most 
loosely  woven. 

The  Sarouk  and  Kashan  may  be  distinguished  from  all  others 
by  their  short  velvety  nap;  dark  rich  colours;  fields  of  graceful 
foliated  stalks  and  floral  forms  resting  on  concentric  medallions; 
and  the  fine,  firm,  texture  of  the  weave.  A carefully  drawn  design 
of  the  running  latch-hook  appears  in  the  borders;  and  the  weft  is 
usually  some  shade  of  blue.  The  Kashans  are  almost  the  same  as 
Sarouks  but  have  closer  weave  and  finer  texture.  They  very  rarely 
come  in  large  sizes. 

Muskabads  and  Mahals  are  invariably  made  in  large  carpet 
sizes.  Their  texture  is  firm;  they  are  very  coarsely  woven;  and 
there  is  great  irregularity  in  the  size  of  the  knots  as  shown  at  the 
back.  Of  the  two,  the  Mahals  are  the  better  grade. 

A large  rug  with  woollen  warp  and  with  one  thread  of  warp 
to  each  knot  doubled  under  the  other  is  almost  always  a Bijar. 

Selinas  are  always  very  thin  rugs  and  of  small  or  moderate  size. 
With  few  exceptions  the  field  is  covered  with  Ilerati  or  pear  designs. 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  RUGS 


289 


They  can  be  identified  by  the  quincunx  appearance  of  the  fine  cotton 
weft  at  the  back  and  the  file-like  feeling  of  the  weave. 

The  only  Persian  rug  that  has  a side  selvage  and  also  shows  evi- 
dence of  Caucasian  influence  in  the  geometric  drawing  of  the  pat- 
terns is  the  Karadagh. 

The  Gozenes  may  be  distinguished  from  other  classes  by  their 
dull  colours.  In  many  of  them  each  thread  of  warp  is  encircled  by 
the  right  half  of  some  knots  and  the  left  half  of  others. 

The  Asia  Minor  rugs  have  so  many  features  in  common  that  they 
cannot  conveniently  be  divided  into  .subgroups.  For  instance: 
almost  all  have  a coloured  weft,  a coloured  web  with  fringe  at  the 
ends,  and  a selvage  at  the  sides;  all,  excepting  the  Ghiordes  and 
a few  modern  pieces,  have  woollen  warp  and  weft;  and  all  have  the 
Ghiordes  knot.  To  be  sure,  a distinction  may  be  made  in  the  length 
of  the  nap,  since  as  a rule  the  Bergamo,  Rhodian,  Karaman,  Yuruk, 
and  some  of  the  Anatolians  have  a long  nap;  and  the  remainder 
usually  have  a short  nap;  and  also  in  the  weaving,  as  in  the  Bergamo, 
Ghiordes,  Karaman,  Kulah,  and  Ladik,  one  thread  of  warp  to  each 
knot  is  generally  depressed,  and  in  the  remaining  classes  all  threads 
of  warp  are  equally  prominent;  furthermore,  Anatolians,  Bergamos, 
Karamans,  Rhodians,  and  Koniehs,  have  rarely  more  than  three 
stripes  to  the  border;  and  Kir-Shehrs,  Kulahs,  Ladiks,  and  Ghiordes 
have  seldom  less  than  five;  but  these  features  are  not  always  con- 
stant and  pronounced.  The  patterns,  therefore,  and  those  smaller 
designs  which  frequently  are  peculiar  to  a single  class  are  of  consider- 
able assistance  in  distinguishing  one  from  the  other.  The  arch  of  the 
namazliks  is  also  an  invaluable  feature  for  identification  since  its 
shape  is  different  in  each  class  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Plates 
C and  D (Pages  61  and  63). 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  modern  pieces,  made  to  meet  the 
demands  of  exporting  companies,  the  Bergamo  and  Rhodian  have 
certain  points  of  resemblance.  As  a rule,  they  are  almost  square, 
and  have  long  nap,  long  webs  with  coloured  bands  at  the  ends,  a 
side  selvage,  and  coloured  weft.  The  Rhodian  may  generally  be 
distinguished  by  their  brighter  colours  and  their  panels,  suggesting 
windows,  placed  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  rug.  The  Bergamos, 
which  are  more  frequently  seen,  have  rich,  deep  blue  and  red  colour- 
ing, and  more  devices  to  avert  the  evil  eye  than  any  other  Oriental  rug. 

Two  panels,  one  above  the  arch  and  the  other  below  the  field. 


290 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


are  almost  invariably  seen  in  the  Ghiordes  prayer  rugs  and  occasion- 
ally in  the  Kulahs,  but  rarely  in  any  other  classes.  The  typical 
pattern  of  the  central  border  stripe  of  Ghiordes  prayer  rugs,  con- 
sisting of  most  conventionalised  leaf  and  rosette,  is  not  seen  in 
any  other  rugs;  nor  is  the  pattern  of  the  broad  border  stripe  of  the 
odjaliks  and  sedjadehs,  consisting  of  an  undulating  band  covered 
with  small  flecks  and  fringed  with  latch-hooks. 

The  most  characteristic  features  in  the  pattern  of  Kulahs  are 
the  numerous  narrow  fleck-covered  bands  that  occupy  the  centre 
of  the  border,  and  the  secondary  stripe  with  design  like  a Chinese 
device  represented  in  Plate  H,  Fig.  10  (opp.  Page  194). 

The  pomegranates  at  the  end  of  the  field,  and  the  Rhodian  lilies 
in  the  main  stripe  of  the  border,  distinguish  Ladik  prayer  rugs  from 
all  others.  Figures  of  Vandykes,  which  are  seen  in  some  Anatolians 
and  Mudjars,  are  also  a constant  feature  of  Ladiks. 

A characteristic  feature  of  Koniehs  is  the  row  of  sprigs  with  three 
triangular-shaped  petals  that  project  from  the  border  against  the  field. 

As  a rule,  the  Kir-Shehrs  contain  in  the  field  a larger  amount  of 
grass-green  colour  than  any  other  rug. 

The  narrow  border  stripe  of  thumbdike  processes  that  fit  one 
another  like  cogs  and  the  mauve  or  heliotrope  colour  are  important 
aids  in  distinguishing  Melez  rugs. 

On  account  of  their  long  pile  and  their  patterns  of  latch-hooks 
and  other  geometric  figures,  the  Yuruks  alone  of  all  this  group  re- 
semble the  Caucasian  rugs.  They  may  also  be  distinguished  from 
other  Asia  Minor  rugs  by  the  facts  that  the  weft  is  of  coarse,  wiry 
wool,  and  the  threads  of  warp  are  not  strung  closely  together,  so 
that  at  the  back  each  half  knot  appears  very  distinct  from  the  other. 

A similarity  prevails  in  the  technique  of  most  Caucasian  rugs,  as  all 
have  the  Ghiordes  knot,  and  almost  all  have  warp  and  weft  of  wool, 
sides  that  are  selvaged,  and  ends  with  a web  and  loose  fringe.  More- 
over, classes  that  are  in  a measure  geographically  related  show  resem- 
blances, as  for  instance:  the  Chichi,  Daghestan,  Kabistan,  and 
Shirvan,  which  have  short  nap;  the  Tcherkess,  Kazak,  and  Genghas 
which  have  medium  to  long  nap;  and  the  Soumak,  Shemakha,  and 
Kuba,  which  have  a similar  selvage  at  sides  and  ends.  The  only  classes 
in  which  one  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot  is  depressed  or  doubled  under 
the  other  are  the  Karabagh,  Shemakha,  and  Shusha,  from  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Caucasia,  and  the  Lesghian  from  the  northern  part. 


Plate  O.  No.  1,  Shah  Abbas  design.  No.  2,  Mina  Khani  design.  No.  3,  Guli  Hinnai  design. 
No.  4,  Herat!  design.  Nos.  5-a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f.  Swastikas.  Nos.  6-a,  b.  e,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  in.  Pear 
designs.  No.  7,  Cioud-bands.  No.  8,  Pitcher.  No.  9,  Motives  of  Asia  Minor  and  Armenian  rugs. 
No.  10,  Octagonal  disc.  No.  11,  Combs.  No.  12,  Motives  of  Melez  rugs.  Nos.  13-a,  b,  c,  d,  14, 
15,  Conventionalised  leaf-forms  in  Asia  Minor  rugs.  Nos.  16-a,  b,  c,  The  lotus.  No.  17,  Knot  of 
destiny.  Nos.  18-a,  b,  Motives  of  Daghestans  and  Kabistans. 


292 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


The  Soumak  with  its  flat  stitch  and  with  ends  of  yarn  hanging  loose 
at  the  back  is  unlike  all  other  rugs.  At  the  sides  is  a carefully  woven 
selvage,  and  next  to  the  nap  at  the  end  is  a narrow  selvage  of  fine 
spun  threads.  The  rugs  of  Shemakha,  woven  by  some  of  the  same 
tribes  who  dwell  nearer  the  mountains,  have  similar  selvages  at  the 
sides  of  blue  or  bluish  green,  similar  ends  of  a narrow  web  of  “her- 
ring-bone” weave  and  one  or  more  rows  of  knots,  and  a medium  long 
nap  of  rich  blues,  reds,  yellows,  browns,  and  greens.  The  Kuba 
rugs  are  almost  identical  with  them,  except  that  each  thread  of 
warp  is  equally  prominent  at  the  back,  whereas  in  the  Shemakas 
one  thread  to  each  knot  is  depressed.  When  once  these  selvages, 
the  narrow  end-webs  of  “herring-bone”  weave,  and  the  particular 
tones  of  colour  characteristic  of  these  rugs  have  been  carefully 
observed,  they  are  not  forgotten.  The  well-known  Georgian  stripe 
(Plate  J,  Fig.  9,  opp.  Page  228 ) is  rarely  found  in  any  but  these  three 
classes. 

The  Baku  rug  may  be  distinguished  by  its  geometric-shaped 
pear  designs,  and  stiffly  drawn  birds.  If  modern,  the  tones  are  dull. 

Long,  shaggy  nap,  strong  colours,  of  which  red  and  green  are 
almost  invariably  present,  and  large  designs  surrounded  by  numer- 
ous small  nomadic  figures  are  the  general  features  of  a Kazak.  The 
Tcherkess  has  a striking  resemblance  to  it,  so  that  they  are  constantly 
mistaken  for  one  another;  but  the  Tcherkess  is  generally  better 
woven  and  the  pattern  usually  consists  of  what  is  known  as  the 
“Sunburst”  resting  on  a field  of  dull  red  or  a tawny  shade.  The 
border  is  almost  invariably  of  three  stripes,  of  which  the  central  has 
the  tarantula  design,  and  the  two  guards  have  a reciprocal  sawtooth 
design. 

The  field  of  the  typical  Chichi  has  an  all-over  pattern  of  small  geo- 
metric design;  and  its  main  border  stripe  has  rosettes  separated  by 
diagonal  ribbon-like  bars,  as  shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  6 (opp.  Page  226). 

Rugs  from  the  Karabagh  district  may  frequently  be  recognised 
by  the  Persian  influence  in  the  drawing  of  their  patterns. 

Genghas  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  other  classes  of  this 
group  by  the  fact  that  the  weft  crosses  more  than  twice  and  fre- 
quently many  times,  between  every  two  rows  of  knots,  which  are 
not  appressed,  so  that  the  weft,  as  it  encircles  the  warp,  appears 
at  the  back  like  a narrow  beaded  surface. 

Daghestans,  Kabistans,  and  Shirvans  have  so  many  different 
patterns  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  the  classes;  but 


Plate  0.5 


Chinese  Hug  of  the  Keen-Lung  Period 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  RUGS 


293 


it  will  be  some  assistance  to  remember  that  the  border  design  of 
wine  cup  and  serrated  leaf  (Plate  I,  Fig.  1,  opp.  Page  226)  is  found  in 
about  one  half  of  the  Shirvans,  and  that  the  bracket  design  (Plate 
J,  Fig.  19,  opp.  Page  228)  is  peculiar  to  Daghestans  and  Kabistans. 

The  small  Central  Asiatic  group  is  not  only  unlike  other  groups, 
but  may  naturally  be  divided  into  three  subgroups,  which  are  also 
distinct  from  one  another  and  contain  well-defined  classes,  viz. : 

(а)  Afghan,  Royal  Bokhara,  Princess  Bokhara,  Tekke,  Khiva, 

Yomud,  and  Beshire. 

(б)  Samarkand,  Kashgar,  and  Yarkand. 

( c ) Beluchistan. 

In  the  first  subgroup  the  prevailing  colours  are  dark  reds  and 
browns  with  minor  quantities  of  blue,  green,  and  ivory.  The  Af- 
ghans are  almost  always  of  large  size,  and  may  be  recognised  at  once 
by  the  broad  web  of  the  ends  and  the  large  octagonal  shaped  figures 
placed  in  contact  in  perpendicular  rows.  The  Royal  Bokharas  are 
smaller,  the  end  webs  are  not  so  wide,  the  octagons  are  never  in 
contact  and  are  separated  diagonally  by  diamond-shaped  figures. 
The  Princess  Bokharas  and  many  Tekkes  have  the  Katchli  pattern. 
The  Yomuds  resemble  the  other  classes  of  this  subgroup  in  colour; 
but  in  the  fields,  diamond  designs  have  entirely  replaced  the  octagons. 

The  rugs  of  subgroup  “b”  almost  always  have  cotton  warp; 
whereas  the  rugs  of  subgroups  “a”  and  “c”  invariably  have  woollen 
or  goat’s  hair  warp. 

The  Samarkands  are  somewhat  similar  in  colours  and  patterns 
to  Chinese  rugs,  but  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  they 
almost  invariably  have  three  border  stripes,  whereas  the  Chinese 
usually  have  only  one  or  two.  The  Kashgar  and  Yarkand  also  show 
Chinese  influence. 

The  Beluchistans  with  brown,  blue,  green,  and  claret  colours 
may  be  identified  at  once  by  their  long  embroidered  webs  at  each 
end. 

In  the  determination  of  the  class  to  which  a rug  belongs,  the 
pattern  first  of  all  attracts  attention;  and  if  it  be  one  peculiar  to  a 
single  class,  it  is  an  important  guide.  But  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  this  will  not  be  sufficient.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  to  observe 
if  the  designs  be  floral  or  geometric,  if  the  colours  be  subdued  or 
obtrusive,  if  the  knot  be  Sehna  or  Ghiordes,  if  the  warp  be  cotton 


294 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


or  wool.  The  variations  in  finish  of  sides  and  ends  are  also  an  index 
of  the  class.  The  pattern  and  these  few  technical  details  are  the 
only  characteristics  by  which  most  dealers  attempt  to  determine 
the  different  kinds  of  rugs.  But  in  the  case  of  half  of  them,  such 
evidence  is  far  from  conclusive.  The  back  should  be  even  more 
carefully  examined  than  the  front;  because  here  are  shown  those 
subtle,  but  nevertheless  positive  distinctions,  relating  to  the  manner 
of  tying  the  knot  and  the  treatment  of  warp  and  weft,  which  are 
the  most  permanent  tribal  characteristics  of  Oriental  weaving. 
It  should  be  noticed,  then,  if  each  thread  of  warp  encircled  by  the 
yarn  that  forms  the  knot  lies  in  the  same  plane  parallel  with  the 
surface  and  is  equally  prominent;  or  if  one  to  each  knot  be  depressed 
below  the  other,  or  if  it  be  doubled  under  the  other  so  as  to  be  con- 
cealed. It  should  also  be  noticed  if  the  weft  be  coloured  or  un- 
coloured, of  fine  or  of  coarse  diameter;  and  if  a thread  of  weft 
crosses  only  once  or  two  or  more  times  from  side  to  side  between 
every  two  rows  of  knots.  Furthermore,  the  knots  themselves  should 
be  carefully  scrutinised  to  see  if  each  row  of  them  is  firmly  pressed 
down  upon  the  weft,  if  each  knot  has  a length  equal  or  exceeding  its 
width,  if  the  yarn  of  which  they  are  formed  is  drawn  tight  against 
the  warp,  and  if  it  is  loosely  or  closely  spun.  Only  by  consideration 
of  all  these  different  points,  and  sometimes  even  more,  such  as  the 
nature  of  the  colours,  the  character  of  wool,  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  spun,  is  it  possible  to  determine  doubtful  cases  of  identification. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

PURCHASING  RUGS 


S those  who  have  expert  knowledge  of  the 
value  of  Oriental  rugs  are  exceedingly  few, 
i compared  with  those  who  admire  and  wish 
to  own  them,  the  object  of  this  chapter  is  to 
, make  suggestions  regarding  a proper  selec- 
tion, when  purchasing,  and  to  point  out  some 
of  the  pitfalls  that  beset  the  inexperienced. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  any  rug,  three 
distinct  qualities  are  to  be  considered:  rarity,  artistic  beauty,  and 
utility. 

Rarity  may  depend  on  the  age  of  a rug,  the  locality  where  it 
was  woven,  or  its  type.  In  determining  the  age,  which  as  a rule 
is  greatly  exaggerated,  a number  of  facts  should  be  considered. 
One  is  the  condition  resulting  from  wear;  though  at  times  this  is 
misleading,  since  of  two  pieces,  one  may  have  been  handled  with 
almost  religious  solicitude  and  the  other  exposed  to  the  elements 
and  to  hard  usage.  Moreover,  an  artificial  appearance  of  natural 
wear  is  sometimes  counterfeited.  Another  is  the  pattern,  since,  as 
has  been  shown  in  the  case  of  antique  carpets,  the  character  of 
drawing  changed  with  succeeding  periods.  Even  when  the  pat- 
terns of  old  carpets  are  copied  in  modern  pieces,  a distinction  is 
usually  discernible  to  a careful  observer.  The  colours,  too,  play  an 
important  part  in  determining  age;  for  not  only  are  some  char- 
acteristic of  different  periods,  as  particular  shades  of  yellow  and 
green  of  Chinese  rugs  and  the  blue  of  Persian;  but  the  mellowing 
influences  of  time,  acting  through  the  agencies  of  exposure  and 
wear,  cause  effects  that  cannot  be  produced  by  any  artificial 
process. 

Occasionally  the  time  when  a rug  is  made  is  recorded  in  Arabic 
numbers  woven  above  a word  denoting  “year.”  If  they  are  indis- 
tinct on  account  of  the  length  of  the  nap,  they  may  be  more  clearly 
read  in  reverse  order  at  the  back.  In  the  following  lines,  each  of 


296  ORIENTAL  RUGS 


them  is  represented  below  the  one  in  our  own  notation,  to  which 
it  corresponds. 


0, 

♦ 


1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9 

i,rr,i,o,nv,A,q 


These  numbers  represent  not  the  Christian  but  the  Mohammedan 
year,  which,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Hegira,  began  about  the 
middle  of  July  622,  or  a little  before  the  actual  flight  from  Medina. 
It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  lunar  and  not  the  solar  year 
is  considered  in  Moslem  chronology;  which,  according  to  our  reck- 
oning, gains  about  one  year  in  every  thirty-three  and  seven  tenths 
years.  To  calculate,  then,  the  year  of  our  time  corresponding  with 
the  year  expressed  in  the  rug,  from  the  number  should  be  sub- 
tracted one  thirty-three  and  seven  tenths  part  of  itself,  and  then 
should  be  added  six  hundred  and  twenty-two.  Thus,  if  the  year 
1247  was  woven  in  the  rug,  our  corresponding  year  would  be  a.d. 
1247  less  37  (or  1210)  plus  622,  or  1832.  When  such  dates  appear 
in  old  rugs,  they  are  generally  to  be  depended  on,  but  in  modem 
ones  they  are  more  likely  to  be  antedated  to  give  the  effect  of  greater 
age. 

With  reference  to  the  time  when  woven,  rugs  may  conveniently 
be  divided  into  three  broad  classes;  Antique  rugs  or  carpets  made 
over  two  centuries  ago;  old  rugs  made  fifty  or  more  years  ago;  and 
modern  rugs  made  since  the  introduction  of  aniline  dyes,  or  within 
the  last  fifty  years. 

The  number  of  antique  carpets  that  exist  is  undetermined,  as  it 
is  impossible  to  estimate  how  many  remain  in  Oriental  mosques 
and  palaces.  Nor  has  any  complete  catalogue  been  made  of  those 
that  are  owned  in  Europe  and  America.  They  consist  principally 
of  the  products  of  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and  China.  Many 
belong  to  the  museums  and  the  remainder  to  sovereigns  and  wealthy 
collectors.  Like  rare  porcelains  and  old  paintings,  their  value 
increases  with  each  passing  year;  and  the  prices  received  for  them 
range  according  to  the  fancy  and  caprice  of  the  purchaser.  They 
are  the  most  valued  and  the  most  costly  of  all  rugs. 

The  number  of  rugs  over  fifty  years  of  age,  but  not  belonging 
to  the  previous  class,  is  very  large.  A few  are  sufficiently  prized  to 


Plate  GO.  Kurdish  Prayer  Kilim 


PURCHASING  RUGS 


297 


be  placed  in  art  museums,  some  belong  to  collectors,  large  num- 
bers embellish  the  halls  and  drawing  rooms  of  people  of  refinement, 
and  others  are  yearly  brought  from  the  Orient;  but  dealers  and  the 
public  already  realise  that  their  numbers  are  limited.  Even  now 
they  are  searched  for  in  the  remotest  corners  of  every  rug-produc- 
ing country;  and  in  a few  years  the  last,  now  cherished  as  family 
heirlooms,  will  have  been  exchanged  for  western  gold.  Almost  all 
are  well  woven,  though  some  are  too  much  worn  to  be-  trodden 
longer  under  foot.  None  are  treated  with  aniline  dyes,  but  the 
colours  mellowed  by  time  are  exceptionally  good  and  frequently  con- 
tain rare  tones  characteristic  of  the  first  class.  Moreover,  large 
numbers  contain  emblems  of  a symbolism  still  shrouded  in  mysteries 
that  increase  their  fascination.  On  the  whole,  this  is  the  choicest 
stock  from  which  to  choose  elegant  carpetings  for  luxurious  homes. 
When  it  is  considered  that  rugs  of  this  class  are  beginning  to 
disappear  from  the  market,  the  prices  at  which  they  may  be 
purchased  are  moderate  compared  with  the  prices  of  more  modern 
pieces. 

The  great  majority  of  existing  Oriental  rugs  have  been  woven 
within  the  last  fifty  years.  A few  of  them,  including  many  of  the 
newest,  have  colours  that  compare  favourably  with  those  of  older 
pieces;  but  a large  number  show  the  effect  of  aniline  dyes.  Some 
woven  by  nomads  or  dwellers  in  remote  villages,  without  thought 
of  sale,  have  designs  and  workmanship  such  as  have  characterised 
the  fabrics  of  these  people  for  past  generations;  but  others,  which 
are  the  products  of  the  workhouse  system,  though  well  woven  as  a 
rule,  lack  the  charm  of  spontaneous  individuality.  Age  alone  has 
little  influence  in  determining  the  value  of  these  modern  rugs,  since 
they  have  not  yet  become  rare;  yet  even  in  them  the  wear  of  time 
affects  their  other  qualities.  Other  things  being  equal,  they  cost 
less  than  the  old  and  the  antique  rugs. 

The  locality  where  a rug  was  woven  is  also  to  be  considered  in 
determining  its  rarity  and  therefore  its  value.  Of  the  countless 
carpets  that  once  existed  in  Egypt,  of  the  very  early  rugs  of  Cau- 
casia and  Turkestan,  not  a piece  remains;  but  if  one  were  to  be 
found  it  would  be  almost  priceless.  The  antique  carpets  of  Syria, 
or  of  Kirman,  Shiraz,  and  Tabriz,  woven  over  three  centuries  ago, 
are  more  valuable  than  others  of  equally  good  workmanship,  of 
which  relatively  large  numbers  remain.  So,  too,  of  the  rugs  classed 
as  old,  but  falling  short  of  the  venerable  age  of  the  real  antiques. 


298 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


those  which  are  now  difficult  to  be  obtained  on  account  of  their 
scarcity,  are  more  valuable  than  those  which  are  being  produced  in 
larger  numbers.  Rugs  such  as  the  Joshaghan,  Tiflis,  and  many 
others  of  sixty  or  more  years  of  age,  are  no  longer  woven.  Modern 
products  from  the  same  districts  may  adopt  the  old  names,  but 
they  are  not  the  same.  Accordingly,  it  will  be  only  a short  time 
when  they  too  will  disappear  from  the  market.  Good  examples 
of  such  pieces  should  therefore  receive  more  careful  consideration 
on  the  part  of  purchasers  and  collectors,  as  their  value  is  increasing 
with  each  passing  year. 

Furthermore,  the  rarity  of  an  old  rug  is  often  independent  of  its 
age  or  the  locality  where  it  was  made,  and  is  due  to  its  peculiar 
type.  For  instance,  the  Ming  Rugs  of  China  with  silver  threads 
and  the  so-called  Garden  Carpets  of  Iran  represent  types  rather  than 
localities.  Likewise  the  Hunting  Carpets  of  Persia,  the  Holbein 
Carpets  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Dragon  Carpets  of  Armenia,  repre- 
sent, as  far  as  we  know,  the  textile  craft  of  no  well-defined  district 
of  limited  area,  as  is  the  case  of  modern  rugs,  but  rather  rare  types. 
Such  pieces  are  valuable,  not  alone  on  account  of  their  age,  but  also 
because  they  represent  these  rare  types. 

A rug  is  also  valued  for  its  artistic  beauty.  The  innumerable 
rugs  which  centuries  ago  were  in  daily  use  soon  disappeared,  and 
only  those  intended  for  palaces  or  temples  have  been  preserved.  It 
is  but  natural,  then,  that  the  antique  carpets  representing  the 
highest  art  of  their  time  should  be  not  only  rare  but  also  beautiful. 
Yet  even  in  them  is  often  a distinction  that  affects  their  value. 
Fortunately,  very  many  of  the  larger  number  of  rugs  of  less  age, 
but  classed  as  old,  likewise  possess  artistic  beauty.  This  chiefly 
depends  on  the  drawing  and  the  colouring. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  almost  without  exception  careful  drawing 
accompanies  workmanship  of  a high  class.  This  is  partly  due  to 
the  facts  that  the  more  excellent  the  weave  the  easier  it  is  to 
clearly  define  patterns;  and  that  on  shortness  of  nap,  which  as  a 
rule  is  found  in  closely  woven  rugs,  depends  accuracy  of  delinea- 
tion. The  charm  of  rugs  often  depends,  also,-  on  the  graceful  flow 
of  lines,  the  careful  balance  of  different  parts  of  patterns,  and 
the  proper  co-ordination  between  border  and  field.  Careful  atten- 
tion should  accordingly  be  given  to  the  drawing  when  selecting 
a rug. 

The  artistic  beauty  of  Oriental  rugs  depends  still  more  on  the 


PURCHASING  RUGS 


299 


colouring,  since,  as  has  been  elsewhere  expressed,  drawing,  which  is 
intellectual,  finds  its  highest  development  in  the  Occident,  and 
colouring,  which  is  sensuous,  finds  its  highest  development  in  the 
Orient.  It  at  once  suggests  sumptuous  luxury.  In  all  of  the 
antique  carpets  that  remain  and  in  very  many  rugs  over  fifty  years 
of  age,  all  the  colours  employed  in  a single  piece  are  in  tones  of 
perfect  harmony,  and  are  so  placed  with  reference  to  one  another 
that  the  effect  is  most  agreeable.  But  in  some  of  the  modern  pieces, 
such  as  are  produced  in  parts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasia,  are 
colours  which,  like  discordant  notes  of  music,  grate  harshly  on  the 
senses.  The  most  pleasing  effect  is  when  colours  of  border  and  field 
are  complementary,  yet  so  in  harmony  as  to  accentuate  the  quali- 
ties of  each. 

There  are  also  colours  which,  independent  of  their  association, 
are  in  themselves  good  or  bad.  The  best  are  found  in  the  antique 
carpets  woven  when  the  art  of  the  dyer  was  an  honourable  profes- 
sion. The  colours  are  also  very  good  in  still  later  pieces;  but  for  a 
century  now  some  of  the  finest  have  not  been  used,  and  even  the 
secret  of  producing  them  has  been  lost.  Here  and  there  dyers  and 
weavers  cling  to  early  traditions,  so  that  among  modern  rugs  are 
many  examples  of  good  colouring;  but  the  most  recent  pieces,  ex- 
cepting when  softened  by  artificial  processes,  often  display  harsh 
and  garish  colours.  This  distinction  is  in  a measure  due  to  the  fact 
that  old  colours  were  largely  produced  by  vegetable  dyes  and  the 
modern  are  too  often  produced  by  aniline.  Not  infrequently  both 
vegetable  and  aniline  colours  are  used  in  the  same  piece,  and  some- 
times the  quantity  of  aniline  colour  is  so  small  that  it  is  scarcely 
objectionable;  but  as  a rule  it  is  best  never  to  purchase  a rug  that 
is  so  tainted. 

One  objection  to  the  use  of  aniline  dyes  is  that  by  removing 
some  of  the  natural  oil  of  the  wool  they  are  apt  to  make  it  brittle, 
so  that  it  is  less  able  to  stand  wear.  Another  is  that  in  time  some 
of  the  dyes,  which  have  been  applied  collectively  to  produce  a 
single  colour,  will  fade  or  even  disappear,  so  that  the  final  colour  may 
be  a most  undesirable  shade  not  in  harmony  with  those  that  sur- 
round it.  If  the  fibres  are  brittle  and  become  harsher  to  the  touch 
when  wet  with  water,  it  is  an  indication  that  aniline  dyes  have  been 
used.  Another  test  is  the  application  of  weak  vegetable  acids, 
which  will  make  the  colour  spread  if  produced  by  aniline  dyes,  but 
are  not  likely  to  affect  it  if  produced  by  vegetable  dyes.  Many  na- 


300 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


tive  weavers  can  distinguish  by  placing  the  wool  in  their  mouths, 
when  they  experience  a sweet  or  bitter  taste,  according  as  vegetable 
or  aniline  dyes  have  been  used.  It  is  a mistake,  however,  to  as- 
sume that  the  dyes  are  aniline  because  the  wool  has  a brighter  colour 
at  the  surface  of  the  nap  than  at  the  foundation;  or  because  the 
colour  spreads  when  wet  with  water;  since  in  time  even  some  of  the 
vegetable  colours  will  fade;  and  when  fresh  they  will  run  during  the 
first  washing  in  water,  but  afterwards  they  are  little  affected  either 
by  water  or  weak  acids. 

Even  when  the  same  colours  and  the  same  kind  of  dyes  were  used, 
there  is  a marked  distinction  in  the  appearance  of  old  and  of  re- 
cently woven  rugs,  which  is  due  to  wear  as  well  as  exposure  to 
sun  and  weather.  The  effect  of  time,  imperceptible  at  first,  is 
shown  in  rich  tones  of  remarkable  softness  and  beauty,  that  add 
greatly  to  the  value  of  a rug.  It  accordingly  happens  that  arti- 
ficial processes  are  adopted  to  create  as  far  as  possible  the  same 
results  without  the  lapse  of  time.  Some  of  these  are  as  novel  as 
were  the  efforts  of  the  distinguished  viceroy  of  King-te  Chin,  in  the 
reign  of  Kang-hi,  to  produce  antique  porcelains.*  Henry  Savage 
Landor  says  | that  “to  manufacture  ‘Antique  Carpets’  is  one  of 
the  most  lucrative  branches  of  modern  Persian  carpet  making. 
The  new  carpets  are  spread  in  the  bazar  in  the  middle  of  the  street, 
where  it  is  most  crowded,  and  trampled  upon  for  days  or  weeks, 
according  to  the  days  required,  foot  passengers  and  their  donkeys, 
mules  and  camels  making  a point  of  treading  on  them  in  order  to 
‘add  to  age’  in  the  manufacturer’s  goods.  When  sufficiently  worn 
down  the  carpet  is  removed,  brushed,  and  ordinarily  sold  for  double 
or  treble  the  actual  price,  owing  to  its  antiquity.” 

Whatever  may  be  their  character,  the  methods  employed  to 
give  softened  effects  to  the  colours  are  known  as  “washing.”  Most 
of  those  in  vogue  in  the  Orient,  such  as  washing  with  lime  water, 
do  little  real  injury.  In  this  country  to  artificially  mellow  the 
colours  has  become  a regular  business  of  firms,  who  guard  the  secret 
of  their  different  methods.  Some  use  ammonia,  borax,  and  soap, 

* It  is  stated  that  in  the  short  space  of  a few  weeks  he  created  valuable  an- 
tique porcelains  to  present  to  his  noble  friends  by  placing  recent  copies  of  old 
specimens  in  a vessel  containing  very  greasy  soup,  where  they  were  duly  boiled 
for  a month,  and  after  that  placing  them  in  the  “ foulest  drain  of  the  neighbour- 
hood,” where  they  remained  until  seasoned. 

t In  “Across  Coveted  Lands,  1903.” 


COLOUR  PLATE  XI —CHINESE  RUG 


This  large  Chinese  carpet  represents  some  of  the  best  workmanship 
of  the  Keen-lung  period . In  it  are  shown  the  graceful  drawing  of  leaf, 
fruit,  flower,  and  butterfly,  and  the  dainty  colouring  of  blue,  yellow, 
brown , and  apricot  on  a field  of  ivory  that  are  so  characteristic  of  this 
time.  The  usual  balance  of  designs  throughout  the  field  is  maintained 
with  precision;  but,  as  is  not  always  the  case,  different  motives  occupy 
corresponding  positions.  Thus  a cluster  of  leaves  and  fruit  may  be 
balanced  with  a cluster  of  leaves  and  flowers.  The  conventional  draw- 
ing of  the  corners  and  the  somewhat  formal  panel  that  surrounds 
the  central  medallion  give  to  the  pattern  strength  of  character  while  they 
detract  nothing  from  its  beauty. 


Loaned  by  Mr.  Nathan  Bentz 


mm  mwA\m~~YL  .a^Ovioo 

VdM  M\  '\o  mm  %Ssm&*v<£a\  Sa^mo  a%aymV">  sssvt 

.\»*S  V ai$U  wwo&%  a*m  SV  k\  .kim|  ^suv\-«aa!3.  Mi  \o 

ewo\h\-  • '•>vb*  \o  \mWvio\oa  $$«»&  ^ kn  <\y5^&w6  bim  ,*myo|t  Ssm\ 
y'-'k'i  \o  astemto&tsMo  ok  avo  Yos\\  \tow  \o:fotaYY  ri  »o  ioomfe  tSm»  ,msoM 
banl^vsjm-  w iAM. MY  Y\voi\$.wnAY  kw^mb.  \o  ao«»in&  Yoims  Ml  'Ml 
\s;qvmc  muio'm  istat^ilb  .aim  ai\Y  aymasio  i&st  u ?.»  $\s&  \m>moa*K$  &\m 
a<Y  \h.  :.;!,  brio  ?*■:>',  *\p  "‘v^iij-Vd  » v.y.\YT  .M<&Vioq  ^wmwo^ATt-bd 
Vom&&Moo  asVT  /^-ads-b^  bjt»  \o  -faSauta  •»  ilVso?  baoivobid 

kW>H-rma  tM  k.uoq  kimo!  yifeo&  MJ‘  bit*  ktainbo  Mi.  \o  $.m- 
:Vv.Cv.j.  T>iomy..i\o  \d  Aitymis  vnaiiocj  aAi  oi  awj>  ;to’Msm  loT^ftad  MY 

.\>Y-.- * -i  >..Vi  sttbd\  '^iwAioW  fomiab 


: V:  's6  miv.xv  A .•t\(L  \>d  fosmooS. 


PURCHASING  RUGS 


301 


which  also  do  very  little  injury  to  the  rug.  Others  use  chloride  of 
lime,  boracic  acid,  vinegar,  or  oxalic  acid,  that  remove  some  of  the 
natural  oils  of  the  wool  and  accordingly  impair  its  qualities  for  wear. 
In  fact,  pieces  are  occasionally  injured  to  the  extent  that  the  wool 
has  become  brittle  and  may  readily  be  plucked  out.  Neverthe- 
less, it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  all  rugs  washed  with  an 
acid  solution  have  been  seriously  injured;  but  the  colours  never 
have  the  same  richness  as  those  which  have  been  softened  by  nat- 
ural processes  operating  for  a long  period  of  years.  To  be  sure, 
rugs  that  have  been  washed  are  often  more  attractive  than  they 
were  in  their  raw  colours;  but  the  older,  more  beautiful  rugs  with 
genuine  tones  mellowed  by  time  are  always  to  be  preferred.  Over 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  Kermanshahs,  Sarouks,  Kashans,  Tabriz, 
Muskabads,  Mahals,  and  Gorevans,  and  a large  percentage  of  all 
other  modern  rugs  sold  in  this  country,  have  been  treated  by  some 
artificial  process  to  soften  their  colours  or  give  them  the  appearance 
of  age.  It  is  generally  necessary,  when  selecting  a large  rug  for  a 
floor  covering,  to  accept  a washed  piece;  but  when  a smaller  rug 
or  a runner  will  meet  the  requirements,  it  is  preferable  to  choose 
the  older  unwashed  piece,  which,  as  a rule,  is  more  beautiful  and 
costs  but  little  more.  In  the  case  of  most  pieces,  the  tones  of  colour 
are  sufficient  to  enable  one  who  is  experienced  to  distinguish  be- 
tween those  that  are  artificially  aged  and  those  that  are  not.  In 
the  case  of  others,  a simple  test  is  to  rub  them  thoroughly  with  a 
wet  rag;  when,  if  acid  or  chloride  of  lime  has  been  used,  it  can 
generally  be  detected  by  the  odour. 

The  artistic  beauty  of  a rug  also  depends  somewhat  on  the 
fineness  of  the  nap;  as  the  soft,  floccy  fibres  of  some  wools  acquire  a 
velvety  appearance,  or  give  to  the  colours  a sheen  and  a lustre  com- 
pared with  which  other  rugs  look  harsh  and  coarse.  For  instance, 
the  rugs  of  Shiraz  and  Meshed,  the  Beluchistans,  and  many  Bok- 
haras  are  noted  for  the  lustre  of  their  colours ; but  on  the  other  hand 
many  of  the  rugs  of  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasia  have  colours  that  are 
without  lustre,  and  the  rugs  of  India  which  are  made  of  dead  or 
“Chunam”  wool,  seem  lifeless. 

When  selecting  any  rug,  then,  the  purchaser  should  carefully 
observe  if  the  patterns  are  well  drawn  and  their  different  parts 
show  a proper  balance.  He  should  observe  if  the  colour  tones  are 
harmonious  with  one  another,  if  each  colour  in  itself  is  good,  and  if 
they  have  been  softened  by  natural  processes  acting  for  a long  time. 


302 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


And  he  should  notice  if  the  wool  is  coarse,  dead,  and  lustreless,  or 
if  it  has  a sheen  and  glint  in  the  light  of  day;  for  these  are  the 
qualities  that  make  up  the  artistic  beauty  of  a rug. 

The  utility  to  be  derived  from  rugs  that  properly  belong  to 
museums  and  collectors  receives  small  consideration,  though  even 
with  them  the  more  perfect  their  condition  the  more  valuable  they 
are.  But  in  case  of  the  great  majority  of  rugs,  which  are  intended 
for  use  as  well  as  for  ornament,  their  utility  is  an  important  con- 
sideration to  the  purchaser.  Rugs  that  have  warp  and  weft  of 
strong  yarn  and  a close  firm  texture,  will  wear  better  than  others. 
Also,  such  rugs  as  Bijars,  in  which  one  thread  of  warp  to  each  knot 
is  doubled  under  the  other,  will  be  found  to  wear  better  than  such 
rugs  as  Mosuls  which  have  each  thread  of  warp  equally  prominent 
at  the  back.  For  durability,  long  nap  is  also  to  be  preferred  to 
short,  since  it  protects  the  foundations  of  the  knots  from  wearing 
and  becoming  loose. 

Before  purchasing  an  old  rug,  it  should  be  spread  on  the  floor 
to  see  if  it  lies  flat  and  if  its  shape  is  regular.  It  should  be  examined 
by  daylight  and  not  by  electric  light,  which  gives  a false  impres- 
sion of  colour  and  sheen.  It  should  be  held  up  with  the  back  turned 
to  the  purchaser,  and  carefully  examined  for  weak  spots  through 
which  the  light  may  pass;  since,  when  so  held,  many  pieces  which 
seem  in  good  condition  when  lying  on  the  floor,  resemble  a sieve. 
The  foundation  threads  should  also  be  carefully  inspected,  as  some- 
times they  rot  and  will  tear  with  slight  tension.  Moreover,  as  the 
selvage  or  overcasting  of  the  sides  and  the  webs  of  the  ends  are 
intended  primarily  not  for  ornament  but  for  protection,  it  should 
be  noted  if  they  are  in  good  condition.  Sometimes  the  webs  of 
the  ends  are  entirely  gone,  so  that  continual  fraying  of  the  nap  is 
prevented  with  difficulty.  Sometimes  the  selvage  or  overcasting 
of  the  sides  is  broken  and  some  of  the  threads  of  warp  are  injured. 
Or  the  sides  may  be  well  protected  by  a stout  overcasting;  but  on 
examination  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  not  the  original  finishing,  and 
that  some  of  the  border  has  disappeared.  Again,  it  may  have  been 
overcast  too  tightly,  so  that  the  sides  curl  and  turn  under,  and  thus 
expose  the  border  to  injury  when  trodden  on.  Careful  examina- 
tion will  often  reveal  surprises.  In  many  old  rugs  the  field  is  full 
of  rents,  that  have  been  sewn  together;  in  others  entire  pieces  have 
been  removed,  so  that  they  are  no  longer  of  their  original  length; 
or  parts  of  the  border  are  gone,  or  even  the  whole  of  it  has  been 


PURCHASING  RUGS 


303 


replaced  by  the  border  of  another  rug;  yet  all  so  deftly  done  that 
the  changes  are  scarcely  noticeable. 

Nevertheless,  old  pieces,  if  otherwise  meritorious,  are  not  to  be 
discarded  on  account  of  a few  imperfections,  since  what  can  be  ac- 
complished in  the  hands  of  a careful  repairer  is  remarkable.  Broken 
threads  of  warp  and  weft  can  be  mended;  missing  knots  can  be  re- 
placed with  others  of  similar  yarn;  crooked  pieces  can  be  straight- 
ened by  loosening  here  and  stretching  there;  borders  that  curl  can 
be  flattened  by  removing  the  yarn  and  overcasting  again  more 
carefully.  In  fact,  if  the  nap  be  not  so  worn  that  the  foundation 
of  warp  and  wept  is  exposed,  it  is  far  better  to  choose  an  old  rug 
with  some  rents  than  a new  one  with  garish  aniline  dyes.  Nor 
should  a piece  be  slighted,  because  the  brownish  black  areas  of  wool 
dyed  with  iron  pyrites  are  worn  low;  since  often  the  most  beautiful 
effects  are  obtained  by  a surface  of  brighter  colours  standing  out  in 
relief,  on  account  of  the  worn  blackish  nap  that  surrounds  it.  Now 
and  then  a bargain  can  be  had  by  buying  a rug  which,  because  of 
some  imperfection  that  is  not  serious,  has  been  passed  by;  and  now 
and  then  a piece  reeking  with  dirt  has  proved,  when  properly  cleansed, 
to  be  a gem. 

The  foundation,  consisting  of  the  warp  and  weft,  receives  but 
little  consideration  from  purchasers;  yet  it  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant indices  of  the  quality  of  a rug,  and  its  strength  is  one  of  the 
most  necessary  conditions  for  utility.  The  warp  is  best  observed 
at  the  ends.  In  most  Chinese  and  Indian  rugs  and  in  some  of  the 
Persian,  it  is  of  cotton;  in  others  it  is  of  wool  or  goat’s  hair.  In 
the  Chinese  rugs  the  diameter  of  the  threads  of  warp  is  much 
smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  threads  of  the  weft,  and  has  little 
strength,  but  in  almost  all  other  rugs  it  is  at  least  as  large  and  as 
stout.  The  weft  may  readily  be  observed  at  the  back.  In  very 
many  of  the  best  rugs,  it  consists  of  fine  spun  wool;  but  in  many 
modern  ones,  it  is  of  coarse  wool  or  cotton.  The  number  of  knots 
to  the  square  inch  does  not  of  itself  demonstrate  the  quality  of 
texture,  since  a rug  may  have  only  a few  knots  of  coarse  diameter 
and  be  firmly  woven,  or  it  may  have  many  knots  of  fine  diameter 
and  be  loosely  woven;  but  in  the  same  class  the  better  rug  has 
generally  more  knots  than  a poorer  one.  When  selecting  a rug, 
then,  the  back  should  be  most  carefully  observed;  for  here  may  be 
seen  if  the  yarn  that  forms  the  knots  is  well  spun,  if  the  knots  them- 
selves are  drawn  tight  and  well  pressed  down,  and  if  the  threads 


304 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


of  weft  are  carefully  inserted  and  have  a texture  that  indicates 
fine  workmanship.  Almost  invariably  it  will  be  found  that  if  the 
back  of  a rug  shows  good  material,  and  has  an  appearance  of  firm- 
ness and  skilful,  painstaking  weaving,  the  front  will  correspond 
with  good  colours  and  careful  drawing. 

The  value  of  antique  carpets,  which  depends  to  some  extent  on 
their  size,  and  to  a much  greater  extent  on  their  rarity  and  char- 
acter, is  constantly  increasing;  for  the  reason  that  their  number 
is  limited  and  each  year  they  are  more  highly  appreciated.  It 
is,  therefore,  impossible  to  affix  even  approximate  prices;  but  the 
sums  paid  at  the  Yerkes  sale  in  1910,  when  some  thirty  pieces  were 
sold  at  auction  for  an  average  of  about  $9,400,  will  serve  as  a guide. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  pieces  sold  and  the  prices  realised: 


Carpet,  size  7 feet  4 inches  by  5 feet  4 inches,  attributed  to  Western  Persia, 
at  end  of  XVI  Century,  and  purchased  by  the  Metropolitan  Museum 

of  Art,  N.  Y $5,600 

Persian  carpet,  XVI  Century,  described  on  page  86  5,600 

Polish  silk  carpet,  XVI  Century,  size  6 feet  6 inches  by  4 feet  7 inches  . . 4,700 

Polish  silk  carpet,  XVI  Century,  size  6 feet  6 inches  by  4 feet  7 inches  . 3,500 

Polish  silk  carpet,  XVI  Century,  size  6 feet  11  inches  by  4 feet  10  inches  12,300 
Silk  carpet,  XVI  Century,  size  7 feet  2^  inches  by  6 feet  5 inches,  stated 

to  have  belonged  to  the  Ardebil  Mosque 35,500 

Moorish  carpet,  XVI  Century,  size  10  feet  11  inches  by  5 feet  10  inches, 
stated  to  have  belonged  to  the  Ardebil  Mosque  and  purchased  by  the 

Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  N.  Y 15,200 

Hispano  Moresque  Mosque  carpet,  size  34  feet  5 inches  by  16  feet  8 inches, 

flat  stitch 8,600 

Carpet  attributed  to  Western  Iran,  size  16  feet  4 inches  by  11  feet  2 

inches,  and  purchased  by  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  N.  Y.  . . 19,600 

Carpet  similar  to  the  Mosque  carpet  of  Ardebil,  XVI  Century,  size  23 

feet  11  inches  by  13  feet  5 inches 27,000 


The  value  of  rugs  over  fifty  years  of  age  but  not  sufficiently 
old  to  belong  to  the  antique  class  also  depends  as  much  on  the 
technique  of  weave,  drawing,  colouring,  and  rarity  as  on  the  size; 
yet  even  this  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  proportion 
to  their  size  the  most  expensive  of  these  rugs  are  the  Kirmans, 
Sehnas,  and  Niris  from  Persia;  the  Ghiordes  and  Ladiks  from 
Asia  Minor;  the  Daghestans  and  Kabistans  from  Caucasia;  and 
the  Royal  Bokharas  and  Yomuds  from  Central  Asia.  Consider- 
ing both  utility  and  attractiveness  the  least  expensive  are  probably 
the  Sarabends  and  Mosuls  from  the  Persian  group,  the  Yuruks  from 
Asia  Minor,  Kazaks  and  Tcherkess  from  Caucasia,  and  Afghans  and 


PURCHASING  RUGS 


305 


Bcluchistans  from  Central  Asia.  As  is  the  case  with  antique  carpets, 
the  prices  of  all  old  rugs  in  good  condition  are  steadily  advancing. 

There  is  likewise  a tendency  for  the  prices  of  modern  rugs  to 
increase  with  each  year,  since  on  account  of  the  gradual  opening  of 
Oriental  countries  to  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  the  greater 
demand  for  rugs,  the  wages  of  weavers  are  increasing.  Some  of 
them,  as  the  Tabriz,  Gorevans,  Kermanshahs,  Muskabads,  Mahals, 
Sarouks,  and  Kashans,  are  now  made  almost  exclusively  under  the 
direction  of  the  work-house  system,  and  are  sold  at  prices  that 
fluctuate  but  slightly.  But  in  a short  time  the  prices  of  all  of  them 
will  doubtless  be  higher. 

When  a rug  of  carpet  size  is  required,  the  Kermanshahs  are 
generally  preferred  on  account  of  their  soft  colouring  and  refined 
patterns,  that  harmonise  with  the  furnishings  of  most  reception 
rooms.  Less  expensive  and  more  showy  are  the  Gorevans,  which 
are  suitable  for  halls  or  dining  rooms.  In  the  Afghans,  which  are 
splendid  rugs  for  a den,  are  combined  durability  with  a moderate 
price.  Within  recent  years  some  of  the  Indian  rugs,  as  the  Amrit- 
sars  and  Lahores,  have  been  growing  in  favour,  as  they  not  only 
have  good  colours,  artistic  patterns,  and  exceedingly  good  texture, 
but  are  reasonable  in  price.  Of  smaller  rugs  required  both  for  orna- 
ment and  use,  the  Shiraz,  Feraghan,  Mosul,  Bergamo,  Tcherkess, 
Bokhara,  and  Beluchistan  are  desirable. 

As  is  the  case  with  other  works  of  art,  so  much  deception  can 
be  practised  in  the  sale  of  rugs  that  a purchaser  cannot  use  too 
much  circumspection.  Sometimes  through  ignorance  or  with  in- 
tention, a dealer  will  declare  that  the  wool  of  a rug  which  has  been 
coloured  with  aniline  dyes  has  been  coloured  with  vegetable  dyes 
only;  that  a rug  washed  with  acid  has  matured  naturally;  that  a 
new  rug  which  has  been  artificially  worn  almost  to  the  knot  is  an 
antique;  or  that  a particular  rug  belongs  to  the  class  desired,  as 
where  a Shirvan  is  offered  for  a Shiraz  or  a Bij  ar  for  a Bergamo, 
which  ordinarily  are  worth  much  more.  It  is,  accordingly,  dis- 
creet to  buy  only  of  such  firms  as  have  a reputation  which  is  above 
reproach;  and  if  for  any  reason  it  is  difficult  to  learn  the  standing 
of  a firm,  the  purchaser  would  do  well  to  make  an  effort  to  test 
its  reliability  by  inquiring  about  the  qualities  of  some  class  of 
rugs  with  which  he  is  familiar  before  purchasing  others;  and  if 
there  appears  to  be  any  intention  to  deceive,  he  should  at  once 
look  elsewhere.  In  any  event,  he  should  take  a guarantee  that  the 


306 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 


rug  purchased  is  as  represented.  Firms  that  have  gained  an  hon- 
ourable reputation  by  honest  dealing  deserve  the  patronage  of  the 
public,  and  will  always  be  found  ready  to  make  restitution  if  any 
mistake  has  been  made. 

At  times,  the  best  rugs  may  be  bought  at  auctions  and  at  the 
fairest  prices.  Auctions  such  as  the  Yerkes,  where  estates  are 
being  closed  or  where  firms  are  dissolved,  occasionally  occur,  when 
every  opportunity  is  given  the  purchaser  to  thoroughly  examine 
in  advance  pieces  which  are  sold  without  reservation  to  the  highest 
bidder.  On  such  occasions,  rare  pieces  are  sometimes  bought  at 
very  moderate  prices.  But  as  a rule,  unless  the  purchaser  is  a 
good  judge  and  has  previously  carefully  examined  a coveted  piece 
in  broad  daylight,  it  is  better  not  to  buy  at  auctions.  During  the 
sale  it  is  impossible  to  properly  examine  a rug.  The  glare  of  elec- 
tric light  thrown  upon  it  gives  a too  favourable  impression  of  its 
beauty.  The  competitive  bids  of  other  real  or  fictitious  purchasers 
and  the  words  of  the  auctioneer  too  often  lead  beyond  the  dictates 
of  good  judgment.  At  such  times  one  would  do  well  to  remember 
the  old  words  caveat  emptor. 


i 


INDEX 


INDEX* 


A 

Abbas,  Shah,  88,  89,  169,  211;  pattern 
named  after,  105;  sent  artisans  to  India, 
111;  rug  industry  declined  after  death 
of,  112. 

Abraham,  23,  31. 

Acacia  used  as  a dye,  40,  41. 

Aceadians,  23. 

Adighies,  209. 

Afghan  rugs,  293,  304,  305;  geometric 
designs  of,  62;  technicalities  in  weave 
of,  51,  53,  56,  57,  235.  Rugs  described, 
243,  244,  245;  border  stripes,  251. 

Afghan  tribes,  90. 

Afghanistan,  41,  103,  233,  243,  244;  camel’s 
wool  of,  32. 

Afshar  rugs,  100,  286 ; technicalities  in  weave 
of,  51.  Rugs  described,  155. 

Aga  Mohammed  Khan  pillaged  Kirman,  113. 

Agamemnon,  166. 

Agra,  255,  257. 

Agra  rugs  described,  257. 

Akbar,  Shah,  28;  received  assistance  from 
Shah  Abbas,  29;  established  rug  weaving 
at  Lahore,  94;  imported  Persian  weavers, 
253;  carpet  factory  of,  256. 

Ak-Hissar,  175. 

Ak-Hissar  rugs,  101.  Rugs  described,  175, 
176. 

Ak-kal,  oasis  of,  238. 

Albana,  204. 

Alexander  the  Great,  169,  181,  246;  de- 
stroyed Shiraz,  115;  built  walls  at  Der- 
bend, 204. 

Alhambra,  25. 

Ali  Riza,  Imam,  110. 

Allahabad,  258. 

Allahabad  rugs  described,  258. 

Altai  Mts.,  29;  original  home  of  the  Turks, 
26. 

Altman,  Benjamin,  85. 

Alum,  used  as  a mordant,  40,  41. 


Amritsar,  255,  258. 

Amritsar  rugs,  101,  257,  305.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 255. 

Amu  Daria.  See  Oxus  river. 

Anatolia,  163,  182;  the  “Land  of  the  Rising 
Sun,” 187. 

Anatolian  rugs,  101,  176,  190,  289,  290; 
illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  63.  Rugs 
described,  187,  188,  189;  border  stripes, 
195. 

Angora,  27,  185,  187;  goat’s  wool,  32. 

Anilines.  See  Dyes. 

Animal  carpets,  86,  87. 

Anjuman  Industrial  Art  School,  259. 

Anoschar,  76. 

Anti-Taurus  Mts.,  140,  187,  190. 

Arabia,  24,  29,  32. 

Arabic  features  in  rugs,  85;  notation,  296; 
symbolism  in  Western  Kurdistan  rugs, 
141. 

Arabs,  in  Persia,  103;  overran  Turkestan, 
234. 

Ararat,  Mt.,  103,  219. 

Aras  river,  151, 157, 224. 

Ardebil,  Persian  capital  under  Ismael,  28; 
mosque  of,  82,  127. 

Ardebil  carpet,  15;  described,  83,  84. 

Ardelan  district,  100,  129,  133,  153. 

Armenia,  209;  origin  of  some  Caucasian 
border  stripes  of,  226,  228,  229. 

Armenian  rugs,  91,  170,  209,  220;  designs 
derived  from,  64,  65,  67,  209,  214,  215. 
Rugs  described,  91. 

Armenians  in  Persia,  103;  in  Mosul,  103. 

Artaxerxes,  103. 

Aryan  races,  in  India,  28;  in  Persia,  103; 
in  Caucasia,  197;  in  Turkestan,  234; 
floral  ornamentation  employed  by,  62. 

Asburg  used  as  a dye,  41. 

Astrabad,  241. 

Astrakan,  market  for  Bokharas,  235,  for 
caravans  from  Khiva,  240. 

Auctions,  306. 


All  references  of  an  unimportant  character  are  indicated  by  the  page  number  only. 


310 


INDEX 


Ayyampet,  259. 

Azerbijan  province,  26,  145,  147,  148,  149, 
153. 

B 

Baber,  Shah,  28. 

Babylon,  23,  24,  74,  102,  103. 

Bagdad,  81,  138,  152;  carpets  covering  the 
floors  of,  25;  captured  by  Tartars,  27, 
by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  28. 

Bajazet,  defeated  by  Tamerlane,  27;  Kara- 
man  subject  to,  188. 

Bakshis  rugs  described,  148. 

Baku,  210,  214. 

Baku  rugs,  101,  292;  pear  design  in,  70, 
129,  153,  198,  202.  Rugs  described,  210, 
211,  212;  border  stripes,  229. 

Bangalore,  259,  261. 

Bangalore  rugs,  101,  259.  Rugs  described, 
261. 

Barbarossa,  Frederic,  181. 

Bardini,  Stefano,  85. 

Bastard  teak  used  as  a dye,  39. 

Bedouins,  103. 

Belshazzar,  24. 

Beluches,  in  Kirman,  113;  untamed  tribes 
of,  248. 

Beluchistan,  233. 

Beluchistan  rugs,  205,  234,  239,  301,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  53,  56,  57; 
illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  61;  geo- 
metric designs  in,  62;  S design  in,  64; 
zigzag  line  in,  66;  reciprocal  trefoil  in, 
160,  230.  Rugs  described,  248,  249; 
border  stripes,  251. 

Beni-Hassan,  tombs  of,  74. 

Bergamo  rugs,  101,  289,  305;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  50,  52,  53,  54,  57;  illustra- 
tion of  prayer  arch  of,  63;  prevailing 
colour  tone  of,  178.  Rugs  described,  166, 
167,  168;  border  stripes,  193. 

Berlin  gallery,  92. 

Beshire  rugs,  101,  233,  293;  illustration  of 
prayer  arch  of,  61;  S design  in,  65; 
zigzag  line  in,  66.  Rugs  described,  243; 
border  stripes,  251. 

Bibikabad,  town  of,  154. 

Bibikabad  rugs  described,  155. 

Bijar,  129,  136. 

Bijar  rugs,  100,  153,  256,  286,  288,  302,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  51,  52;  com- 
pared with  Persian-Kurdistans  and 
Mosuls,  143.  Rugs  described,  136,  137; 
border  stripes,  157,  159,  160. 

Birbul’s  blue  used  as  a dye,  40. 

Bird  figures  in  rugs.  See  Designs. 


Birdwood,  Sir  George,  cited,  62,  70,  94,  122, 
138;  quoted,  59,  241,  253,  258,  259,  260. 

Birjand,  108. 

Bishop,  Mrs.  I.  B.,  quoted,  138. 

Bode,  Dr.  Wm,  cited,  79,  227,  228. 

Bogolubow,  A.,  cited,  233. 

Bolder,  J.,  cited,  79. 

Bokhara,  100,  110,  245;  captured  by  Gen- 
ghis Khan,  26;  the  “Noble,”  236. 

Bokhara  rugs,  100,  243,  305;  goat’s  hair 
in,  32;  technicalities  in  weave  of,  50,  52, 
53. 

Bokhara,  Princess,  rugs,  101,  233,  235,  293; 
illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  61.  Rugs 
described,  237,  238;  border  stripes,  250, 
251. 

Bokhara,  Royal,  rugs,  101,  103,  233,  241, 
242,  243,  244,  293,  304;  compared  with 
Princess,  237;  the  arch  compared  with 
that  of  Tekkes,  239.  Rugs  described, 
235,  236;  border  stripes,  250,  251. 

Border  stripes,  defined,  59;  Persian,  de- 
scribed, 156,  157,  158,  159,  160;  Asia 
Minor,  described,  192,  193,  194,  195; 
Caucasian,  described,  225,  226,  227,  228, 
229,  230,  231;  Central  Asiatic,  described, 
250,  251;  Chinese,  described,  273,  274, 
275. 

Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  94. 

Brahoes,  248. 

British  Museum,  82. 

Broussa,  181.  Rugs  described,  181. 

Buckthorns  used  as  a dye,  39. 

Buddhism,  influence  on  Asiatic  art,  16; 
on  symbolism,  58;  the  lotus  an  emblem 
of,  69. 

Buddhist  emblems,  271,  274. 

Burujird,  131. 

Burujird  rugs  described,  131. 

Butea  fondosa  used  as  a dye,  39. 

Butti  lac  used  as  a dye,  39. 

C 

Caesarea.  See  Kaisariyeh. 

Caieus  valley,  166. 

Cairo,  Caliphs  in,  25;  Mecca  rugs  sold  in, 
118. 

Caliphate,  20,  76. 

Caliphs,  24,  25,  77,  90,  91,  115;  prayer  rugs 
in  time  of,  85;  Ispahan  under.  111; 
Kirman  rugs  in  palaces  of,  113;  Tabriz 
rugs  known  in  days  of,  145. 

Caliph  Hisham,  carpet  of,  76. 

Camel’s  hair.  See  Wool. 

Carduchis,  140. 


INDEX 


311 


Caria.  See  Melez. 

Chaldees,  23;  symbolism  derived  from,  66. 

Chardin  cited,  113. 

Charles  Martel,  25. 

Chehel  Sutoon,  enormous  carpet  of,  112. 

Che-Hwang-te,  26. 

Chichi  rugs,  100,  290,  292;  illustration  of 
prayer  arch  of,  61;  Kazaks  contrasted 
with,  220.  Rugs  described,  207,  208; 
border  stripes,  226,  231. 

Chinese  fret,  67,  165;  influence,  293;  me- 
dallions, 272,  273. 

Chosroes  I,  “Spring  of  Chosroes”  carpet 
made  for,  76. 

Chunam  wool,  261,  301. 

Churchill,  Sidney,  A.  T.,  quoted,  131. 

Cinnabar  used  as  a dye,  40,  41. 

Circassians.  See  Tcherkess. 

Clark,  Sir  Purdon,  cited,  112. 

Clotilde  Clam-Gallas,  Countess,  cited,  80. 

Coccus  cacti  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Coccus  ilicus  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Coccus  lacca  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Cochineal  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Cochran,  Wm.  Alexander  Smith,  86. 

Coconada,  259. 

Colour,  the  artistic  value  of,  18;  the  sym- 
bolism of,  59, 72. 

Cone  design.  See  Designs. 

Constantinople,  27,  98,  99,  118,  181,  197, 
209;  Persian  weavers  taken  to,  28; 
silk  carpets  sent  to  Sultan  of,  87. 

Conventions  in  art,  16. 

Cordova,  25. 

Cossacks,  218,  219. 

Cotton,  used  in  weaving  30;  mercerized,  30. 

Cow’s  hair  used  in  weaving,  30,  33. 

Crocus  used  as  a dye,  39. 

Croesus,  163. 

Crown  jewel  design.  See  Designs. 

Ctesiphon,  76,  102,  103. 

Cufic  lettering,  in  Altman  carpet,  85;  in 
borders  of  Asia  Minor  and  Caucasian 
rugs,  92,  166,  202,  229;  reputed  inventor 
of,  183. 

Cupressus  sempervirens  used  as  a dye,  41. 

Curcuma  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Cyrus,  24,  115,  181;  Turkestan  overrun  by, 
234. 

D 

Daghestan,  198,  206,  214. 

Daghestan  rugs,  205,  212,  213,  216,  290, 
292,  293,  304;  technicalities  in  weave 
of,  51,  54;  illustration  of  prayer  arch  of, 
61;  effulgent  stars  in,  91;  Cufic  borders 


of,  92;  Bergamo  prayer  arch  compared 
with  that  of,  167;  weave  of  Kabistans 
compared  with  that  of,  201;  designs  in, 
211;  colour  scheme  of  Shirvans  com- 
pared with  that  of,  214;  mosaic  drawing 
of,  220.  Rugs  described,  198,  199,  200; 
border  stripes,  226,  227,  228,  229,  230. 

Daghestan,  Royal,  216. 

Damascus,  17;  antique  carpets  of,  95; 
Mecca  rugs  sold  in,  118. 

Dari,  211,  257. 

Darius,  215. 

Dekkan,  rugs  woven  in  interior  of,  259. 

Delhi,  28,  110. 

Demirdji,  164,  176. 

Demirdji  rugs  described,  176. 

Deodorus,  74. 

Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  280;  Kilims,  281. 

Derbend,  199,  204. 

Derbend  rugs  described,  204,  205;  border 
stripes,  230. 

Designs,  geometric,  62,  64,  185;  floral, 
62,  64,  68,  185;  almond,  70;  animal,  89, 
83,  91,  112,  114,  126,  137,  165,  200,  211, 
213,  225,  248;  antilope,  72;  arabesques, 
71,  79,  81,  83,  94,  104,  156,  175;  barber- 
pole,  117,  118,  119,  153,  182,  200,  215, 
229,  242,  246,  251;  bat,  71,  266;  birds, 
71,  87,  91,  119,  114,  137,  165,  229, 
246,  270,  292;  bird  of  paradise,  71; 
butterfly,  71,  246,  266,  269,  270;  camel, 
72;  chessboard,  271;  chrysanthemum, 
271;  cloud-band,  67,90,  106,  265,  274; 
cocos,  114;  comb,  67,  208,  213,  221; 
conch,  274;  cone,  70;  crab,  71;  cross, 
67,  92,  236,  237;  crown  jewel,  70,  112; 
daisy,  64,  69;  diamond,  91,  141,  145, 
177,'  200,  203,  212,  223;  djirini,  72; 
dog,  72,  213;  dragon,  71,  246,  266, 
268,  273,  274;  dragon  and  phoenix,  92; 
duck,  71,  81,  87;  eagle,  71;  Euphrates 
flower,  69,  189;  fish,  165,  246;  fung- 
kwang,  266;  fungus,  269;  gazelle,  95; 
goat,  72;  Joo-e,  265,  274;  key-pattern, 
27,  267,  274;  knot  of  destiny,  274;  ky-lin, 
265;  lamp,  165,  170,  182;  latch-hook, 
67,  74,  117,  145,  155,  167,  169,  180,  182, 
183,  184,  186,  187,  189,  200,  202,  203, 

212,  215,  220,  223,  225,  227,  228,  231, 

242,  249,  250,  251,  278,  282,  288;  lily, 

167,  170,  172,  184,  193,  230;  lion,  72, 

95;  lion-dog,  266;  lotus,  64,  68,  69,  89, 
199;  lozenge,  62,  91,  123,  141,  206,  220, 
225,  249;  lyre,  271;  mango,  70;  medal- 
lion, 60,  86,  87,  104,  106,  108,  109,  110, 
121,  123,  126,  134,  138,  139,  145,  149, 


312 


INDEX 


169,  183,  189,  200,  212,  214,  215,  220, 
267,  269,  271,  272,  273;  moon,  65,  69; 
octagonal  disc,  66,  92,  180,  200,  206, 
213,  220,  275;  palm,  70;  palmette, 

70,  71,  89,  90,  94,  106,  121,  177;  pea- 
cock, 71;  pear,  70,  106,  109,  110,  116, 
129,  142,  145,  153,  165,  191,  200,  201, 
207,  218,  219;  peony,  104,  270;  phoenix, 
72;  pole-medallion,  117,  152,  179;  pome- 
granate, 69,  167;  reciprocal  sawtooth, 
78,  121,  130,  209,  221,  231;  reciprocal 
trefoil,  121,  130,  160,  165,  208,  215,  221, 
249;  river  loop,  70;  rose,  62,  69,  139, 
193;  rosette,  70,  94,  104,  121,  188,  193, 
201,  207,  208,  221,  226,  230,  290,  292; 
running  latch-hook,  67,  242;  sacred 
mountain,  265 ; scorpion,  71 ; S design,  64, 
91,  92,  170,  195,  206,  208,  211,  213,  220; 
serpent,  71;  serrated  leaf  and  wine  cup, 
64;  shield  of  David,  66;  Shou,  266,  272; 
star,  62,  65,  71,  93,  112,  183,  200,  203; 
effulgent  star,  201,  211;  eight-pointed 
star,  177,  179,  180,  182,  187,  193,  206, 
207,  208,  210,  213,  220,  236,  244,  246, 
250;  stork,  71,  266;  sun,  65,  66,  69; 
sunburst,  209,  220,  292;  sunflower, 

69,  271;  swastika,  64,  65,  194,  229,  246, 
248,  271,  273;  tarantula,  71,  209,  220, 
221;  tiger,  95;  tree,  137;  tree  of  life,  60, 
68,  182,  186,  189,  219,  237;  tri-cleft 
leaf,  78,  91,  184,  199,  208,  211,  215,  226; 
turtle,  71;  Vandyke,  179,  183,  184,  187, 
189,  290;  wheel  of  law,  266;  zigzag 
line,  66,  67. 

Diaper  pattern,  102,  263. 

Diarbekr,  141. 

Die  Persische  Nadelmalerei  Susandschird,  76. 

Distaff,  36. 

Dix,  Stewart,  quoted,  16. 

Djinni.  See  Designs. 

Djushaghan.  See  Joshaghan. 

Domenico  di  Bartolo,  painting  of,  92. 

Dragon  and  Phoenix  carpet,  65,  231. 

Dragon  carpets,  91,  298. 

Dravidians,  28. 

Dyeing,  37;  process  of,  42,  43. 

Dyes,  30;  of  Sultanabad,  131;  of  Oushak, 
174;  of  Amritsar  rugs,  256.  Aniline  dyes 
introduced  into  India,  254,  into  China, 
265;  objection  to,  299;  how  to  distin- 
guish, 299,  300. 

E 

East  India  Company,  254. 

Ecbatana,  103,  122. 


Elburz  Mts.,  103. 

Eleanor,  Queen,  Spanish  rugs  sent  to,  25. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  29. 

Elizabethpol,  224. 

Ellore,  259,  260. 

Ellore  rugs  described,  260. 

El  Mirz  li  alia,  Caliph,  77. 

Elwund  Mt.,  120,  122,  129. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica  quoted,  140. 

Ends,  finish  of,  57. 

Esther,  Queen,  122. 

Evil  eye,  superstition  of,  59,  168. 

F 

Fairs,  Oriental,  99. 

Farsistan,  wool  of,  31;  antique  carpets 
from  Shiraz,  capital  of,  115. 

Fatimid  Caliphs,  90. 

Feraghan  district,  125,  129,  131. 

Feraghan  rugs,  100,  132,  133,  142,  147, 
153,  156,  285,  305;  technicalities  in 
weave  of,  51,  55;  small  designs  in,  60; 
illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  61;  turtle 
border  of,  79;  Guli  Hinnai  pattern  of, 
105;  pattern  of  Herat  rugs  compared 
with  that  of,  106.  Rugs  described,  120, 
121,  122;  border  stripes,  157,  159. 

Filling,  52. 

Firdousi,  110. 

Fish  pattern.  See  Designs. 

Flame  design.  See  Designs. 

Flax  used  in  weaving,  30,  33. 

Floral  design.  See  Designs. 

Friedhofteppiche,  172. 

G 

Gall  nuts  used  as  a dye,  39. 

Ganges  river,  17,  258. 

Ganja.  See  Gengha. 

Gehrous  district,  136. 

Gengha,  224. 

Gengha  rugs,  101,  290,  292;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  52,  53,  54.  Rugs  described, 
224,  225;  border  stripes,  227. 

Genghis  Khan,  26,  78,  198,  234. 

Geok  Teppe,  238. 

Geometric  pattern.  See  Designs. 

Georgian  pattern,  213,  215,  228,  230,  292. 

Ghiordes,  164,  168,  175,  176,  206. 

Ghiordes  rugs,  65,  101,  183,  184,  191,  289, 
289,  290,  304;  illustration  of  prayer  arch 
of,  63;  Karabaghs  compared  with,  225. 
Rugs  described,  168,  169,  170,  171; 
border  stripes,  192, 193, 194, 195. 


INDEX 


313 


Gibbon  cited,  25. 

Gilan,  cloud-band  in  antique  carpets  of,  67. 

Girdler’s  Company,  India  carpet  presented 
to,  94,  256. 

Goat’s  hair.  See  Wool. 

Gobi  desert,  21,  26,  29. 

Goodyear,  Prof.,  cited,  69. 

Gorevan  rugs,  100,  285,  286,  287,  301,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  51;  turtle 
border  of,  79;  patterns  of  Muskabads 
resembling  those  of,  131;  relation  of 
Bakshis  rugs  to,  148;  relation  of  Herez 
rugs  to,  149.  Rugs  described,  146,  147, 
148;  border  stripes,  157, 158. 

Gotcha  lake,  224. 

Gozene,  156. 

Gozene  rugs,  100,  154,  289;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  54.  Rugs  described,  54. 

“Grain  of  rice”  pattern  in  Chinese  rugs, 
271. 

Granada,  25. 

Guebres,  in  Kirman,  113;  temple  at  Baku 
of,  210. 

Guli  Hinnai  pattern,  104,  120,  121;  illus- 
trated, 291. 

Gulistan  rugs,  100, 154, 286.  Rugs  described, 
155. 

Gulistan  treaty,  203. 

Gyze,  Georg,  92. 

H 

Hafiz,  115. 

Hair,  of  cow,  30,  33;  of  horse,  33. 

Hamadan,  122,  129,  136,  143,  155. 

Hamadan  rugs,  100,  286,  287;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  52,  53,  54,  55;  similarity 
of  some  Irans  to,  125;  similarity  of 
Karajes  to,  144;  similarity  of  weave 
of  Kara-Geuz  rugs  to,  155.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 122,  123,  124;  border  stripes, 
157, 159, 160. 

Hang  Chow,  266. 

Harris,  Henry  T.,  quoted,  40,  260. 

Havell,  E.  B.,  cited,  260. 

Hegira,  296. 

Hemp  used  in  weaving,  30,  33,  261,  263. 

Herat,  105,  110,  244,  285;  captured  by 
Nadir  Shah,  29;  so-called  Ispahans 
probably  made  at,  89,  112. 

Herat  rugs,  69,  89,  100;  technicalities  in 
weave  of,  54,  55;  cloud-band  in  antique 
rugs  of,  67 ; ground  colour  of,  95 ; influence 
on  Indian  weaving  of,  255.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 105,  106;  border  stripes,  156. 

Herati  pattern,  89,  94,  104,  106,  108,  109, 
112,  120,  121,  129,  132,  134,  142,  152, 


153,  157,  165,  170,  201;  illustrated, 
291. 

Hereke,  181. 

Hereke  rugs  described,  181. 

Herez,  149. 

Herez  rugs,  101,  286,  287;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  55.  Rugs  described,  149, 
150;  border  stripes,  157. 

Herodotus,  74. 

Herring  bone  weave,  described,  47;  in  She- 
rnakhas,  216,  217,  292. 

Himalayas,  41. 

Hindu  Koosh  Mts.,  244. 

Hoa,  183. 

Holbein,  Hans,  92,  93. 

Holbein  rugs,  298;  octagonal  disc  in,  66. 
Rugs  described,  92,  93. 

Homer,  69,  74,  110,  163. 

Hulaku  Khan,  conquered  Persia,  26;  Mon- 
golian capital  established  in  Persia  by, 
78. 

Hunting  carpets,  298;  symbolism  in,  72. 
Carpets  described,  82. 

Hnrst,  Dr.  John,  quoted,  257. 

Hyderabad,  259,  262. 

Hyderabad  rugs  described,  262. 

Hyder  Ali,  261. 

I 

Ibn  Batutah,  Meshed  visited  by,  110. 

Iconium,  181. 

Imari  ware,  17. 

Imeritia,  218. 

India  Museum,  122. 

Indigo  used  as  a dye,  38,  40. 

Indigofera  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Indus  river,  17,  24,  29. 

Irak-Ajemi,  124,  127,  129. 

Iran  rugs,  100;  similarity  in  some  rugs  of 
the  Kara-Geuz  district  to,  155.  Rugs 
described,  124,  125;  border  stripes,  157. 

Irtish  river,  26. 

Isbarta,  178. 

Iskenderoon  gulf,  163. 

Ismael,  Shah,  established  capital  at  Ardebil, 
82;  Ardebil  Mosque  carpet  made  dur- 
ing reign  of,  84;  carpets  made  at  Herat 
during  reign  of,  89;  Ardebil  Mosque 
carpet  made  by  order  of,  127. 

Ispahan,  sacked  by  Tamerlane,  27;  Shah 
Abbas  transferred  his  court  to,  29; 
probability  that  some  of  the  so-called 
Ispahans  were  made  at,  89;  description 
of  city.  111. 

Ispahan  blue,  42. 


314 


INDEX 


Ispahan  rugs,  lotus  design  in,  69;  made  at 
Ispahan,  89;  sombre  tones  of,  90;  red 
fields  of,  95;  blues  and  reds  of  the  an- 
tique, 127;  palmettes  of  the  antique,  145. 
Modern  rugs  described,  111,  112,  113. 

J 

Jahan,  Shah,  28;  builder  of  Taj  Mahal, 
94;  Indian  rug-weaving  declined  after 
death  of,  253. 

Jail  system  of  India,  254. 

Jaipur,  255,  259. 

Jaipur  rugs  described,  259. 

Japan, 17. 

Jhelum  river,  suggested  as  origin  of  pear 
design,  70;  Srinagar  on  the,  255. 

Joshaghan  district,  132. 

Joshaghan  rugs,  100,  286,  298;  technicali- 
ties in  weave  of,  50.  Rugs  described, 
132,  133;  border  stripes,  157. 

Jubbulpur,  255,  258. 

Jubbulpur  rugs  described,  258,  259. 

Jute,  used  in  weaving,  30,  33;  in  Kulaks, 
174;  in  Vellore  rugs,  261;  in  Bangalore 
rugs,  262. 

K 

Kaaba,  117. 

Kabistan,  199. 

Kabistan  rugs,  101,  204,  290,  292,  293,  304; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  54;  illustration 
of  prayer  arch  of,  61;  effulgent  stars  of, 
91;  Cufic  borders  of,  92;  patterns  of 
some  Shirvans  similar  to  those  of,  213. 
Rugs  described,  200,  201,  202;  border 
stripes,  226,  228,  229. 

Kain,  108. 

Kaisariyeh,  190. 

Ivaisariyeh  rugs  described,  190,  191. 

Kaiser  Friedrich  Museum,  79,  92. 

Kang-hi  rugs,  78,  101.  Rugs  described,  268, 
269;  border  stripes,  274;  medallions,  273. 

Karabacek,  Dr.,  quoted,  74. 

Ivarabagh  district,  222,  224. 

Karabagh  rugs,  101,  290,  292;  technical- 
ities in  weave  of,  51,  53;  illustration  of 
prayer  arch  of,  61;  Karadaghs  compared 
with,  151;  Shushas  compared  with,  224. 
Rugs  described,  222,  223. 

Karadagh  district,  151. 

Karadagh  rugs,  100,  286,  289.  Rugs  de- 
scribed; border  stripes,  157,  158. 

Kara-Geuz  district,  155. 

Ivara-Geuz  rugs,  100,  154.  Rugs  described, 
155. 


Karaje  rugs,  100,  286;  technicalities  in 
weave  of,  53.  Rugs  described,  143,  144. 

Kara  Kum  desert,  241. 

Karaman,  188. 

Karaman  rugs,  101,  289.  Rugs  described, 
188.  Kilims,  278,  279. 

Kashan,  115,  127,  155.  - 

Kashan  rugs,  100,  285,  286,  288,  301,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  35,  51,  55; 
illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  61;  pat- 
tern of  Sarouks  like  that  of,  134;  cor- 
respondence of  some  rugs  of  Tabriz 
with,  145.  Rugs  described,  127,  128, 
129;  border  stripes,  160. 

Kashgar,  247. 

Kashgar  rugs,  101,  234,  282,  292.  Rugs 
described,  247,  248. 

Kashmir,  70,  255;  goat’s  wool  of,  32,  114. 

Katehli,  derivation  of,  237;  pattern  used  in 
Tekkes,  239,  293. 

Kazak  rugs,  101,  290,  292,  304;  technical- 
ities in  weave  of,  51,  53;  illustration 
of  prayer  arch  of,  61;  Western  Kurdis- 
tans  compared  with,  141;  Afshars  com- 
pared with,  155;  Yuruks  compared  with, 
191;  Tcherkess  compared  with;  209; 
Kutais  compared  with,  222;  Genghas 
compared  with,  224.  Rugs  described, 
219,  220,  221,  222;  border  stripes,  226, 
227,  228,  229. 

Kazak je,  220 

Kea-king  dynasty,  272.  Rugs  described,  272. 

Keen-lung  dynasty.  Rugs  described,  270, 
271,  272;  border  stripes,  274,  275;  me- 
dallions, 273. 

Kenares  defined,  97. 

Kerim,  Khan,  115;  royal  patronage  of  weav- 
ing at  Shiraz  under,  116. 

Kermanshah,  83,  129,  138. 

Kermanshah  rugs,  134,  137,  147,  160,  285, 
288,  301,  305;  technicalities  in  weave  of, 
52;  illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  61; 
corners  of  Khorassans  compared  with 
those  of,  109;  Tabriz  rugs  compared 
with,  145,  146;  Amritsars  mistaken  for, 
256.  Rugs  described,  138,  139,  140; 
border  stripes,  38. 

Kermes  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Key  pattern,  27. 

Khali  defined,  97. 

Khibitkas,  defined,  238;  rugs  made  for  doors 
of,  239. 

Khiva,  110,  240,  241,  244. 

Khiva  rugs,  100,  233,  235,  242,  293;  illustra- 
tion of  prayer  arch  of,  61.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 240,  241;  border  stripes,  250,  251. 


INDEX 


315 


Khorassan,  107,  115,  127;  wool  of,  81; 
Herats  made  in,  106;  Kurdistans  in, 
141;  Yomuds  in,  241. 

Khorassan  rugs,  60,  100,  117,  288;  left- 
hand  knots  in,  48;  technicalities  in  weave 
of,  54,  55;  illustration  of  prayer  arch 
of,  61;  resemblance  of  Mesheds  to,  110. 
Rugs  described,  107,  108,  109,  110; 
border  stripes,  156. 

Khotan,  278. 

Kidderminster,  260. 

Kilims,  earliest  rugs  similar  to,  75;  pattern 
in  Shirvan,  227.  Kilims  described,  276, 
277,  278,  279,  280,  281. 

King-te  Chin,  300. 

Kirghiz,  steppes,  235;  tribes,  240. 

Kirman,  113,  115,  203,  206,  248;  wool  of, 
31;  carpets  made  during  Caliphate 
at,  90;  early  weavers  taken  to  Asia 
Minor  from,  181. 

Kirman  rugs,  100,  285,  297,  304;  techni- 
calities in  weave  of,  50,  51,  53;  resem- 
blance of  Kermanshahs  to,  138;  flowers 
in  Tabriz  rugs  compared  with  those 
of,  145;  some  old  Bergamos  as  valuable 
as,  167.  Rugs  described,  113,  114,  115; 
border  stripes,  158. 

Kirmans,  Turkish,  174. 

Kir-Shehr,  185. 

Kir-Shehr  rugs,  101,  289,  290;  illustration 
of  prayer  arch  of,  63;  prayer  arches  of 
Bergamos  compared  with  those  of, 
167;  prayer  arches  of  Ladiks  compared 
with  those  of,  183;  often  called  Anato- 
lian, 187;  prayer  arches  of  Mudjars 
compared  with  those  of,  189;  prayer 
arches  of  Tuzlas  compared  with  those  of, 
190.  Rugs  described,  185,  186;  border 
stripes,  193. 

Kis-kilims,  280. 

Kizil  Arvat,  241. 

Kizil  Irmak  river,  185,  189. 

Kizil  Kum,  “desert  of  red  sands,”  235. 

Knights  of  St.  John,  28,  179. 

Knots,  Ghiordes,  48;  Selma,  48;  right-hand, 
48;  left-hand,  48;  peculiarities  of,  48; 
illustrated,  49. 

Konieh,  188,  190. 

Konieh  rugs,  101,  289,  290;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  55;  illustration  of  prayer  arch 
of,  63;  resemblance  in  pattern  of  Kir- 
Shehrs  to  that  of,  186;  prayer  arches 
of  Anatolians  compared  with  those  of, 
187.  Rugs  described,  181,  182,  183; 
border  stripes,  193,  195. 

Koran,  72. 


Kuba,  199,  202. 

Kuba  rugs,  101,  290,  292.  Rugs  described, 
202,203,204;  border  stripes,  228. 

Kublai  Khan,  266. 

Kulah,  164,  171,  174. 

Kulah  rugs,  101,  289,  290;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  51,  52,  53,  54;  illustration 
of  prayer  arch  of,  64;  lily  pattern  in, 
167;  Ghiordes  rugs  adopting  border  of, 
171;  geometric  leaf  of,  180;  prayer  arch 
of  Koniehs  compared  with  those  of, 
186.  Rugs  described,  171,  172,  173, 
174;  border  stripes,  193,  194. 

Kur  valley,  207,  214. 

Kurdistan,  Persian,  rugs,  100,  286,  287; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  51;  Mina 
Khani  pattern  characteristic  of,  105; 
Western  Kurdistans  compared  with,  141. 
Rugs  described,  142,  143;  border  stripes, 
157,  159. 

Kurdistan  rugs,  286;  technicalities  in  weave 
of,  51,  53,  57;  Karajes  compared  with, 
143;  ground  colour  of  some  Mosuls 
similar  to  that  of,  154;  some  Kara- 
Genz  rugs  similar  to,  155. 

Kurdistan,  Western,  rugs,  100,  286;  de- 
scribed, 140,  141,  142.  Kilims,  280. 

Kurds,  134,  136,  138,  140,  141,  145,  187,  191; 
located  at  Ak-kal  by  Shah  of  Persia, 
238. 

Kutais,  218. 

Kutais  rugs,  technicalities  in  weave  of, 
53.  Rugs  described,  218,  219;  border 
stripes,  227,  229. 

Kutayah,  176. 

Kutayah  rugs  described,  176. 

L 

Lacquer,  17. 

Ladik  rugs,  101,  167,  289,  290,  304;  illus- 
tration of  prayer  arch  of,  63;  pome- 
granate design  in,  70;  border  stripe  of 
Melez  rugs  similar  to  that  of,  177;  van- 
dykes  of  Rhodian  rugs  resembling  those 
of,  179;  nap  of,  186;  Kir-Shehr  panels 
compared  with  those  of,  187;  Vandykes 
in  Mudjars  borrowed  from,  189.  Rugs 
described,  183,  184;  border  stripes,  193, 
194. 

Lahore,  255,  256;  royal  factory  at,  94. 

Lahore  rugs,  101,  305.  Rugs  described, 
256,  257. 

Landor,  Henry  Savage,  quoted,  300. 

Laristan  border  stripe,  157. 

Latch-hooks.  See  Designs. 


316 


INDEX 


Latimer,  C.,  quoted,  281. 

Lattice-work  pattern,  119,  121,  133,  134, 
137, 204. 

Lemons  used  as  a mordant,  40. 

Lesghian  rugs,  101,  199,  290.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 206,  207. 

Lesghian  tribes,  206,  207. 

Limes  used  as  a mordant,  40. 

Linen,  in  Sehnas,  135;  in  Tabriz,  146; 
in  Ghiordes,  171;  in  Sarouks,  127;  in 
Kashans,  128. 

Loom,  described,  44;  illustrated,  45. 

Lotus.  See  Designs. 

Luristan  rugs,  286;  technicalities  in  weave 
of,  55. 

M 

Madder  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Madras,  259. 

Madras  rugs  described,  259,  260. 

Mahal  rugs,  286,  288,  301,  305;  similar  to 
Muskabads,  131,  132. 

Maharajah,  259. 

Makimonos,  180. 

Makri  rugs,  180. 

Maksoud,  84,  127,  128. 

Malek  Shah  made  Ispahan  the  capital  of 
Persia,  26. 

Malgaran,  246. 

Manchoos,  268. 

Mangishlar  peninsula,  238. 

Marco  Polo,  referred  to  Armenian  carpets, 
91;  referred  to  Kirman  weavings,  113; 
visited  Kashgar,  247. 

Marsulipatam,  259,  260. 

Marsulipatam  rugs  described,  260. 

Martin,  Dr.  F.  R.,  quoted  and  cited,  74, 
77,  79,  81,  82,  89,  90,  116,  227. 

Maya  ruins,  swastika  on,  65. 

Mecca,  77,  98;  pilgrimages  to,  99;  bit  of 
earth  from,  221,  223. 

Mecca  rugs,  117,  118. 

Medallions.  See  Designs. 

Medes,  23,  24,  66,  234. 

Medina,  77,  296. 

Melez  rugs,  101,  290;  technicalities  in  weave 
of,  51;  illustration  of  prayer  arch  of, 
63;  sometimes  called  Anatolians,  187. 
Rugs  described,  1764  177,  178;  border 
stripes,  193,  195. 

Mersherski,  88. 

Merv  Kilims,  280,  281. 

Meshed,  pilgrimages  to,  99,  108. 

Meshed  rugs,  100,  147,  217,  288,  301. 
Rugs  described,  110,  111;  border  stripes, 
158. 


Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York; 
rugs  exhibited  in,  78,  79,  80,  82,  85, 
86,91,93. 

Michelangelo,  16. 

Mina  Khan,  105. 

Mina  Khani  pattern,  105,  142,  152,  249; 
illustrated,  291. 

Ming  dynasty,  78,  81,  266,  268;  coat  of 
arms  of,  92. 

Ming  rugs,  101,  298.  Rugs  described, 
266. 

Mirabad,  130. 

Mirror  backs  in  Chinese  rugs,  267,  272, 
273. 

Mir-Sarabend.  See  Sarabend. 

Mirzapur,  255,  258. 

Mirzapur  rugs  described,  258. 

Mohair,  174. 

Mohammed,  24;  epithet  applied  to  Guli 
Hinnaiby,  104. 

Mohammedans,  98,  103,  113,  237,  257; 
dominant  in  Southwestern  Asia,  25; 
invaded  India,  28;  Meshed  sacred  to, 
110;  prejudice  against  depicting  ani- 
mals by  Sunnite,  165;  Caucasia  invaded 
by,  198;  influence  on  weaving  by,  58, 
270. 

Mongols,  captured  Bagdad,  26;  gained  foot- 
hold in  India,  28;  in  Persia,  62;  in  Cau- 
casia, 198;  overran  Turkestan,  234. 

Mordants,  40. 

Mordecai,  122. 

Moslems,  70;  preserved  art  treasures,  76; 
green  sacred  to,  85. 

Mosul  district,  152. 

Mosul  rugs,  101,  286,  287,  302,  304,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  51,  52; 
Western  Kurdistans  confused  with,  141; 
Persian  Kurdistan  and  Bijar  rugs  com- 
pared with,  143;  resemblance  of  weave 
of  some  Gozene  rugs  with  that  of,  156. 
Rugs  described,  152,  153,  154;  border 
stripes,  157, 158, 159. 

Mt.  Ararat,  103,  219. 

Mt.  Ida,  163. 

Mt.  Kazbek,  206. 

Mt.  Olympus,  181,  191. 

Mudjar,  189. 

Mud  jar  rugs,  101,  290;  illustration  of  prayer 
arch  of,  63;  frequently  classed  as  Anato- 
lians, 187.  Rugs  described,  189,  190; 
border  stripes,  193. 

Multan,  255. 

Multan  rugs  described,  257. 

Mumford,  John  Kimberley,  cited,  v,  67. 

Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs,  79. 


INDEX 


317 


Muskabad  district,  131. 

Muskabad  rugs,  100,  286,  288,  301,  305; 
turtle  border  in,  71.  Rugs  described, 
131,  132;  border  stripes,  157,  159. 

N 

Nadir  Shah,  Afghans  defeated  by,  29; 
influence  of,  103;  art  decadence  follow- 
ing capture  of  Herat  by,  106;  destruction 
of  Herat  by,  110;  weavers  removed 
to  Northern  Persia  by,  113,  132;  She- 
makha almost  destroyed  by,  214;  Shusha 
built  by,  224;  overthrow  of  Mogul  do- 
minion by, 254. 

Namads,  115,  122. 

Namazlik,  98,  150. 

Netsukes,  17. 

Nigde,  190. 

Nigde  rugs,  101;  classed  as  Anatolians,  187. 
Rugs  described,  190. 

Nijni  Novgorod,  235. 

Nimrod,  23. 

Nineveh,  23,  102;  drawings  on  walta  of, 
74;  Mosul  near  ruins  of,  152. 

Niris  lake,  wool  obtained  near,  31. 

Niris  rugs,  100,  204,  286,  287,  304.  Rugs 
described,  119, 120. 

Nizami  manuscript  determining  age  of 
Hunting  Carpets,  82. 

Nomadic  influence,  106;  characteristics  in 
rugs,  134;  rugs,  58,  153. 

O 

Oak  gall,  used  as  a dye,  40. 

Odjalik,  97. 

Omar  Khayyam,  108,  110. 

Onosma  echioides  used  as  a dye,  41. 

Orenburg,  235,  240. 

Oriental  art,  16. 

Ottoman  Turks,  27,  28. 

Oushak,  city  and  district,  164,  176. 

Oushak  rugs,  type  of  modern,  94;  evidences 
of  Persian  treatment  in,  166.  Rugs 
described,  174, 175. 

Outer  edging  in  Kirmans,  114;  in  Hamadans, 
123;  in  Sarouks,  126;  in  Bijars,  137;  in 
Kermanshahs,  139;  in  Mosuls,  153. 

Overcasting  of  sides;  weft  overcasting  de- 
scribed, 55,  56;  illustrated,  49;  double 
overcasting  described,  55,  56;  illus- 
trated, 49. 

Oxus  river  (Amu  Daria),  23,  24,  235,  238, 
240,  243,  244. 


P 

Palais  de  Commerce  at  Lyons,  80. 

Palm  design.  See  Designs. 

Pamir  plateau,  sheep  of,  31;  mountains  of, 
235. 

Paropamisus  Mts.,  235. 

Parsees,  103;  symbolism  derived  from  fire 
worship  of,  58,  71;  at  Baku,  211. 
Parthians,  24. 

Patna  rugs,  101. 

Paul,  St.,  166,  181. 

Pear  design.  See  Designs. 

Pergamus,  166,  168. 

Persepolis,  103.* 

Phasis  river,  197. 

Pile  of  rugs,  47. 

Pliny,  74. 

Polish  silk  carpets,  reciprocal  trefoils  in,  65; 
Chinese  cloud-bands  in,  67;  lotus  in, 
69.  Carpets  described,  88;  bright  hues 
of,  90. 

Polonaise  carpets.  See  Polish  silk. 
Pomegranate.  See  Designs. 

Pomegranate  rind  used  as  a mordant,  40. 
Porter,  Sir  Robert  Kerr,  quoted,  106,  138. 
Prayer  arches,  60,  62;  illustrated,  61,  63. 
Prayer  rugs.  See  Namazlik. 

Priam,  166. 

Prometheus,  197. 

Punjab,  255,  256,  257. 

R 

Ratanjot  used  as  a dye,  16. 

Rembrandt,  16. 

Rhodes,  Isle  of,  28,  178. 

Rhodian  rugs,  101,  289.  Rugs  described, 
178, 179, 180;  border  stripes,  193. 

Rion  river,  218. 

River  loop.  See  Designs. 

Robinson,  Vincent,  cited,  80,  81,  86,  88, 
254,  258,  259. 

Rubens,  16. 

Rubia  cordifolia  used  as  a dye,  41. 

Rubia  tinctorum  used  as  a dye,  38. 
Runners,  97. 

Ruskin,  John,  quoted,  18. 

S 

Saadi,  115. 

Saddlebags,  117,  135,  249. 

Safavid  dynasty,  29,  81,  83,  84,  85,  89,  103. 
Saffron  used  as  a dye,  39. 

Salors,  233. 

Samarkand,  capital  of  Tamerlane,  27;  the 
“Mirror  of  the  World,”  245. 


318 


INDEX 


Samarkand  rugs,  101,  233,  265,  282,  293; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  50;  swastika 
in,  65.  Rugs  described,  245,  246,  247; 
border  stripes,  251. 

Sa-mo-Kien,  246. 

Sarabend  rugs,  285,  304;  technicalities  in 
weave  of,  51;  pear  design  of,  70,  116, 
119,  144,  153;  turtle  border  in,  71;  pile 
of,  133.  Rugs  described,  129,  130; 
border  stripes,  158,  160.  Mir-Sara- 
bends,  130.  Royal  Sarabends,  130. 

Saracenic  art,  21;  influence,  58,  80,  88,  166. 

Saracens,  carpet  weaving  introduced  into 
India  by,  94;  Persia  under  dominion 
of,  103;  Baku  in  possession  of,  210. 

Saraks,  town  of,  136,  238. 

Sarawan  district,  129.  131. 

Sarouk,  125. 

Sarouk  rugs,  134,  285,  286,  288,  301,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  51,  52,  53, 
55;  illustration  of  prayer  arch  of,  61; 
animal  carpet  with  weave  similar  to 
that  of,  86;  corners  of  Khorassans  com- 
pared with  those  of,  109;  patterns  of 
Bijars  compared  with  those  of,  137. 
Tabriz  rugs  compared  with,  145,  146. 
Rugs  described,  125,  126,  127;  border 
stripes,  160. 

Sassanides,  Kingdom  of,  24;  elaborate 
carpets  made  during  rule  of,  74;  capture 
of  capital  of,  75. 

Savalans,  131. 

Sedjadeh,  97. 

Sehna,  48,  129,  133. 

Sehna  rugs,  100,  286,  304;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  51,  54;  medallions  of,  60; 
turtle  border  in,  71  Herati  design  in 
Persian  Kurdistans  borrowed  from,  142. 
Rugs  described,  133,  134,  135;  border 
stripes,  157,  158,  159. 

Sehna  kilims,  278. 

Seljukian  Turks,  effect  on  art,  26;  powerful 
in  Asia  Minor,  27;  overthrow  by  Genghis 
Khan,  78;  invasion  of  Southern  Persia 
by,  90;  monuments  in  Armenia  of,  91; 
dominion  in  Persia  of,  103;  Konieh 
surrendered  to,  181. 

Selvage,  weft  selvage  described,  55,  56;  il- 
lustrated, 49;  double  selvage  described, 
55,  56;  illustrated,  49;  mixed  selvage 
described,  56. 

Serapi  rugs,  285;  turtle  border  in,  71. 
Rugs  described,  148,  149;  border  stripes, 
157. 

Shah  Abbas  pattern,  198,  206. 

Shemakha,  city  of,  214. 


Shemakha  rugs,  101,  290,  292.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 216,  217;  border-stripes,  228. 

Shield  of  David.  See  Designs. 

Shiites,  58;  animal  designs  permitted  by, 
72;  Meshed  sacred  to,  110. 

Shiraz,  wool  of,  31;  city  of,  115. 

Shiraz  rugs,  100,  286,  288,  297,  301,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  51;  illustra- 
tion of  prayer  arch  of,  61;  latch-hooks 
in,  67;  resemblance  of  Niris  rugs  to, 
119;  pear  design  of  Kabistans  similar 
to  those  of,  201;  wool  of  Tiflis  rugs 
suggests  that  of,  217.  Rugs  described, 
115,  116,  117,  118;  border  stripes,  158; 
saddlebags,  117. 

Shirvan  district  conquered  by  Solyman  the 
Magnificent,  28. 

Shirvan  rugs,  101,  290,  292,  293,  305;  tech- 
nicalities in  weave  of,  54;  illustration  of 
prayer  arch  of,  61;  design  of  Shiraz 
rugs  similar  to  that  of,  117;  weave  of 
Kabistans  compared  with  that  of,  201; 
pattern  of  Chichis  resembling  that  of, 
207;  geometric  design  of  Bakus  seen  in, 
211;  some  patterns  of  Genghas  similar 
to  those  of,  225.  Rugs  described,  212, 
213,  214;  border  stripes,  226,  227,  228, 
229,  231.  Kilims,  278. 

Shusha,  224. 

Shusha  rugs,  101,  290.  Rugs  described, 
224. 

Sides,  finish  of,  55;  illustrated,  49. 

Silk,  used  for  weaving,  33;  indigenous  to 
Asia,  33;  cultivated  at  Kashgar  and  Yar- 
kand, 247;  used  in  Kirmans,  114;  in 
Yezd  rugs,  115;  in  Hamadans,  122; 
in  Kashans,  128;  in  Sehnas,  134,  135; 
in  Ghiordes,  178;  in  Hereke  rugs,  181; 
in  Kaisariyeh  rugs,  190;  in  Royal 
Bokharas,  236. 

Silk  carpets,  sent  to  Sultan  of  Constanti- 
nople, 87;  made  at  Kashan,  128. 

Sindh,  255,  259. 

Sindh  rugs  described,  259. 

Sirab,  village  of,  148. 

Sivas,  Seljukian  gate  at,  170 ; city  of, 
188. 

Sivas  rugs  described,  188,  189. 

Smyrna,  164,  175,  176;  Yuruks  at,  191. 

Smyrna  rugs,  101;  Broussa  rugs  compared 
with  those  of,  181;  Indian  rugs  compared 
with  those  of,  254.  Rugs  described,  176. 

Solyman, King,  the  ring  of, 66;  pomegranates 
cultivated  in  days  of,  69;  his  emblem 
of  an  eight-pointed  star,  158. 

Solyman  the  Magnificent,  Iran  threatened 


INDEX 


319 


by,  28;  weavers  taken  to  Asia  Minor 
by,  94,  175. 

Soumak  rugs,  290,  292;  weave  of,  47;  de- 
signs of  cross  in,  67;  tri-cleft  leaf  in, 
91, 209;  Kubas  and  Shemakhas  compared 
with,  203;  patterns  of  Shirvans  com- 
pared with  those  of,  213.  Rugs  de- 
scribed, 214,  215,  216;  border  stripes, 
228, 230. 

Sousa,  reciprocal  sawtooth  on  monuments 
of,  231. 

South  Kensington  Museum,  15,  83,  259. 

Spanish  rugs  sent  to  Queen  Eleanor,  25. 

Sparta  rugs.  See  Isbarta. 

Spindle,  34,  35. 

Spinning,  34,  35. 

Spring  of  Chosroes  carpet  described,  76. 

Srinagar,  70,  255. 

Srinagar  rugs  described,  255. 

Stebbing,  Edward,  cited,  82;  quoted,  83,  84. 

St.  Sophia,  19,  28. 

Star  design.  See  Designs. 

Stein,  Dr.  M.  A.,  cited,  278. 

Strabo,  74. 

Stripes.  See  Border. 

Suj-Bulak,  town  of,  150. 

Suj-Bulak  rugs,  286.  Rugs  described,  150, 
151. 

Sulphate  of  iron  used  as  a mordant,  40. 

Sulphate  of  tin  used  as  a mordant,  40. 

Sultanabad,  129,  131,  132. 

Sultanabad  rugs,  286;  Indian  rugs  compared 
with  those  of,  254,  256.  Rugs  described, 
131. 

Sumach  used  as  a dye,  38. 

Sumerians,  23. 

Sung  dynasty,  266. 

Sunnites  opposed  to'  depicting  animal 
figures,  58,  72,  91,  99,  165,  254. 

Swastika.  Illustrated,  291.  See  Designs. 

Symbols  in  colours  and  designs,  18,  19,  20, 
58,59,72. 

T 

Tabriz,  136,  145,  148,  151,  227;  captured 
by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  28,  94; 
dyers  from,  40;  an  important  art  centre, 
89;  a mart  for  rugs,  99;  Herat  carpets 
in  hall  of  governor  at,  106. 

Tabriz  rugs,  286,  287,  288,  297,  301,  305; 
technicalities  in  weave  of,  53,  55 ; Chinese 
cloud-band  in,  67;  medallions  of  Herez 
rugs  similar  to  those  of,  149.  Rugs 
described,  145,  146. 

Taj  Mahal,  94,  257. 


Tak-i-Bostan,  rock-carved  sculptures  of,  83. 

Tamara,  Queen,  197,  198. 

Tamarind  used  as  a mordant,  40. 

Tamasp,  Shah,  28,  82,  169;  Ardebil  carpet 
finished  during  reign  of,  84;  silk  rugs 
made  during  reign  of,  87;  Herat  an 
important  art  centre  during  time  of, 
89;  Tabriz  carpets  woven  during  reign 
of,  145. 

Tamerlane,  172,  254;  Mongols  united  by, 
27;  Ispahan  sacked  by.  111;  artists 
gathered  at  Samarkand  by,  234;  Samar- 
kand made  capital  by,  246;  Multan 
captured  by,  257. 

Tang  dynasty,  266. 

Tanjore  district,  259. 

Taoist  symbols,  271. 

Tao-Kwang,  272.  Rugs  described,  272. 

“Tapis  de  l’Asie  Centrale”  quoted,  233. 

Tartars,  26,  220;  Turkestan  conquered  by, 
234. 

Tartary,  31,  32. 

Tchechen.  See  Chichi. 

Tcherkess  (Circassian)  rugs,  290,  292,  304, 
305;  technicalities  in  weave  of,  54;  tri- 
cleft  leaf  in,  91;  long  nap  of  Western 
Kurdistans  similar  to  that  of,  141; 
sunburst  pattern  of  Kazaks  similar  to 
that  of,  220.  Rugs  described,  208,  209, 
210;  border  stripes,  227. 

Tcherkess  tribes,  209. 

Teheran,  138;  caravans  to  Meshed  from,  110. 

Teheran  rugs  described,  154,  155. 

Tekke,  derivation  of  name,  238. 

Tekke  rugs,  101,  233,  293;  illustration  of 
prayer  arch  of,  61;  S design  in,  65; 
selvage  at  sides  of  Beluchistans  similar 
to  that  of,  235;  similarity  in  colours 
of  Yomuds  and  those  of,  242;  designs 
in  Afghans  and  Yomuds  similar  to  those 
of,  244.  Rugs  described,  238,  239, 
240;  border  stripes,  250,  251. 

Terek  valley,  207,  208. 

Terminalia  citrina  used  as  a dye,  40. 

Tiflis,  overrun  by  Seljukian  Turks,  26; 
mart  for  rugs,  99;  caravans  from  Tabriz 
to,  145;  capital  of  Georgia,  217. 

Tiflis  rugs,  298;  technicalities  in  weave  of, 
53;  resemblance  between  weave  of 
Kutais  and  that  of,  219.  Rugs  described, 
217,  218;  border  stripes,  227. 

Tiger  skin  pattern,  267. 

Timurids,  invasion  of,  103,  130;  designs  due 
to,  80,  166. 

Titian,  16. 

Toledo,  17. 


320 


INDEX 


Toon,  108. 

Trebizond,  145,  163. 

Turanian  races,  geometric  designs  among, 
62. 

Turkish  Kilims,  280. 

Turmeric  used  as  a dye,  41. 

Turtle  border,  121,  132,  157;  probable  ori- 
gin of,  71,  79. 

Tuz  Gul,  lake,  187,  190. 

Tuzla  rugs  sometimes  classed  as  Anatolians, 
187.  Rugs  described,  190. 

Type  characteristics,  not  invariable,  v; 
term  defined,  107. 

U 

Urumiah  lake,  150,  155,  224. 

Uzbeck  Tartars,  care  of  sheep  by,  31. 

V 

Valonia  used  as  a mordant,  40. 

Value  of  antique  carpets,  15,  16,  304. 
Vambery,  Prof.,  cited,  241. 

Van  lake,  141,  152,  224. 

Vandykes.  See  Designs. 

Vellore,  259,  261. 

Vellore  rugs  described,  261. 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  93. 

Vienna  publication  of  Oriental  carpets,  80, 
259. 

W 

Warangal,  259,  262. 

Warangal  rugs  described,  262. 

Warp,  arrangement  on  loom,  46;  character- 
istics of,  51,  52;  illustrated,  49. 
Washing,  materials  for  weaving,  33,  34,  36; 
artificial,  300,  301. 

Weaving  described,  46,  47;  illustrated,  49. 
“Wedding  of  the  Foundling,”  92. 

Weft,  arrangement  of,  47;  technical  char- 
acteristics of,  52,  53,  54,  55. 

Whirling  Dervishes,  at  Konieh,  181. 
Williams,  C.  F.,  78,  79,  93. 


Whistler  cited,  17. 

Wise  men  of  the  East,  127. 

Wool,  of  the  camel,  30,  32,  124,  153,  249; 
of  the  goat,  30,  31,  142,  241,  245,  249; 
of  sheep,  30,  31;  of  the  yak,  30,  33; 
spinning,  33;  washing,  33,  36. 

X 

Xenophon,  99,  140,  181. 

Xerxes,  115. 

Y 

Yak’s  hair.  See  Wool. 

Yaprak,  175. 

Yarkand,  247. 

Yarkand  rugs,  234,  265,  282,  293.  Rugs 
described,  247,  248;  border  stripes,  251. 

Yarn,  35. 

Yerkes  sale,  15,  82,  86,  304,  306. 

Yezd,  110,  115,  222. 

Yezd  rugs  described,  115. 

Yomud  rugs,  205,  233,  235,  293,  304;  colour 
scheme  of  Beshires  similar  to  that  of, 
243.  Rugs  described,  241,  242;  border 
stripes,  250,  251;  saddlebags,  242. 

Yomud  tribes,  235;  robbed  of  their  land  by 
Tekkes,  231,  241. 

Yuan  dynasty,  266. 

Yung-ching,  269. 

Yung-ching  rugs  described,  269,  270;  bor- 
der stripes,  274;  medallions,  273. 

Yuruk  rugs,  289,  290,  304;  technicalities 
in  weave  of,  51.  Rugs  described,  191, 
192;  border  stripes,  194. 

Yuruk  tribes,  155,  163,  191,  220. 

Z 

Zabalpur  rugs,  101. 

Zagros  Mts.,  21,  103,  140. 

Zarafshan  river,  245. 

Zoroaster,  18,  58,  210. 

Zoroastrians,  69. 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


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